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SEPULTURE. 


SEPULTURE 


HISTORY,    METHODS 


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V. 

SANITARY  REQUISITES 


STEPHEN  WICKES,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

Author  of  "  History  of  Medicine  and  Medical  Men  of  New  yersey,"  ^^c. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

P.    BLAKISTON,    SON    &    CO., 

IOI2    WALNUT    STREET. 
1884. 


COPYRIGHTED,    1883. 


L.    J.    HARDHAM,    PRINTER,    NEWARK,    N.  J. 


CONTKNTS. 


PAGE. 

Introduction 9 

History  of  Sepulture 11 

Ancient  Customs  and  Methods 16 

Sepulchres 20 

Interments  Among  the  Greeks 25 

Customs  Among  the  Romans 28 

Persian  Burial 30 

North  American  Indian  Burial 34 

Early  Christian  Burial 41 

Animal  Putrescence 49 

Malignant  Disease  from  one  Corpse 55 

Saturated  Soil  of  a  Graveyard  Disturbed 57 

Intra-Mural  Interment  in  the  United  States 94 

Yello\v  Fever , 95 

Asiatic  Cholera no 

Pestilence 115 

Rural  Cemeteries 117 

Coffins  for  the  Dead 1 34 

Country  Graveyards 144 


SEPULTURE. 

ITS    IVEKTMODS   AND    RKOUISITKS. 


BY   STEPHEN    WICKES,   M.   D. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  last  few  years  have  witnessed  a  growing  popular 
interest  upon  the  subject  of  bad  air — iiialaria.  Its  effects 
are  well  known.  Measures  to  correct  it  and  thus  promote 
the  public  health  have  been  made  the  subject  of  study  by 
intelligent  observers  of  all  classes.  Boards  of  Health, 
National,  State,  and  Municipal,  are  established.  Wise 
sanitation  is  everywhere  regarded  as  essential  to  the 
public  good. 

In  the  wide  range  of  sanitary  study  and  effort,  the 
subject  of  interment  of  the  dead  has  received  a  compara- 
tively limited  attention.  A  more  generally  extended  and 
definite  knowledge  upon  burial,  and  the  dangers  of  animal 
putrescence  is  an  imperative  need. 

With  the  design  of  diffusing  information  upon  this  im- 
portant subject,  the  author  has  written  the  following 
treatise  on  Sepultiire  and  Mortuary  Customs  and  their 
Requisites.  He  first  gives  a  concise  historical  survey 
of  sepulture  from  the  beginnings  of  history.  He  deemed 
it  worthy  of  its  place,  because  of  its  intrinsic  interest, 


INTRODUCTION. 

but  especially  to  show  that,  in  this  our  day  of  light  and 
of  the  knowledge  of  nature's  laws,  we  are  still  cherishing 
in  our  methods  of  interment  customs  born  and  fostered 
in  the  dark  ages. 

The  authorities  consulted,  which  have  been  freely  used 
in  the  compilation  of  facts  and  of  the  opinions  of  scien- 
tific observers,  are : 

Dangers  of  Interments  in  Cities,  by  Vicq.  Dazyr. 

Dangers  of  Interments  by  Felix  Pascalis ;  Walker  on 
Graveyards ;  Bascom  on  Ancients  Epidemics ;  Health  of 
Towns  (magazine),  London ;  Chadwick's  Report  to  the 
English  Parliament ;  Rauch  on  Intramural  Interment ; 
J.  F.  A.  Adams  on  Cremation  and  Burial ;  Yarrow  on 
Indian  Burial ;  Parke's  Practical  Hygiene ;  Buck's  Hy- 
giene ;  Reports  of  Boards  of  Health,  National,  State  and 
Local  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  Government  Board 
of  Great  Britain ;  also  authors.  Biblical,  historical,  of 
travels,  etc.,  etc. 

Some  of  these  were  written  early  in  the  century,  and 
are  out  of  print.  Being  foreign  they  are  rare  in  our  pub- 
lic libraries.  The  author  is  indebted  for  the  loan  of  such 
— the  rarest  and  most  valuable — to  Dr.  Jos.  M.  Toner, 
of  Washington,  D.  C,  who  sent  them  to  him  unsolicited, 
for  his  use,  and  for  which  he  returns  his  grateful  acknowl- 
edgmentjs,  as  also  to  his  other  friends.  Doctors  S.  A. 
Green  and  James  R.  Chadwick,"  of  Jjoston,  and  to  many 

others  for  their  valuable  aid. 
Orange,  New  Jersey,  May,  1883. 


SEPULTURE. 

ITS   HISTORY. 

"  To  bury  a  dead  body,  whether  known  before  or  not,  is  a  debt  I  owe  to  human- 
ity."— Seneca. 

"  Bury  me  with  my  fathers.  *  *  *  There  they  buried  Abraham  and 
Sarah,  his  wife ;  there  they  buried  Isaac  and  Rebecca,  his  wife ;  and  tliere  I 
buried  Leah." — Gen.  xlix,  29-31. 

These  two  extracts  express  the  promptings  of  the 
universal  human  heart ;  one  the  reverent  reHgious  awe 
in  the  presence  of  death,  the  other  an  instinctive  looking 
for  immortality,  which  fosters  the  expectation  of  a  re- 
union with  loved  ones  gone  before. 

According  to  Josephus  the  first  dead  body  was  buried 
by  Cain  to  cover  his  crime.  The  statement  was  derived 
from  the  traditions  of  the  Rabbis,  and  cannot  be  accepted 
as  reliable.  The  only  shred  of  testimony  upon  the  sub- 
ject comes  from  the  scripture  record  :  "  The  voice  of  thy 
brother's  blood  crieth  unto  me  from  the  ground."  A  dis- 
tinguished Hebraist  remarks  upon  this  passage  that  the 
Hebrew  preposition  (from)  does  not  decide  whether  the 
cry  was  from  the  surface  or  from  beneath  the  ground, 
although  the  latter  idea  might  have  been  made  definite 
by  the  use  of  a  compound  preposition.  The  idea  of  Jo- 
sephus cannot  be  got  from   the  passage.     The  body  of 


12  INHUMATION   IN    EARLY    TIMES. 

Abel  was  not  interred  by  his  brother  that  it  might  be 
"  buried  from  (his)  sight."  Being  the  first  human  cada- 
ver after  the  Creation,  Cain  did  not  know  of  its  subse- 
quent corruption. 

Inhumation  was  practised  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
dead  were  buried  in  the  wilderness,  and  in  places  inhab- 
ited. Abraham,  who  was  a  "  mighty  prince,"  upon  the 
death  of  Sarah,  "  stood  up  before  his  dead  and  spake  unto 
the  sons  of  Heth  *  *  *  ^\vq  me  a  possession  of  a 
burying  place  with  you  that  I  may  bury  my  dead*  out  of 
my  sight."  He  thereupon  purchased  the  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah  for  money. 

Jacob's  remains  were  transported  from  Egypt  by  his  son 
Joseph  with  great  pomp,  and  laid  in  Canaan,  according  to 
his  desire  made  known  before  his  death.  Moses  was 
buried  in  the  valley  of  Moab,  Miriam,  his  sister,  in  the 
desert  of  Zin,  Aaron  in  Mount  Hor,  Eleazer,  his  son,  and 
Joshua,  on  the  mountains  of  Ephraim.  The  bones  of 
Joseph,  which  the  children  of  Israel  brought  up  out  of 
Egypt,  were  buried  in  Shechem  in  a  parcel  of  ground 
which  Jacob  had  bought,  three  hundred  years  before,  of 
the  sons  of  Hamor,  and  where  he  erected  an  altar  to 
Jehovah. 

After  the  Israelites  came  into  the  quiet  possession  of 
the  promised  land  and  were  brought  under  the  require- 
ments of  their  ceremonial  laws,  their  habits  in  regard  to 


*  Not  Sarah  in  particular,  but  those  of  his  posterity,  being  assured  of  tiieir 
promised  possession. 


DISEASES   OF   EARLY   TIMES.  1 3 

the  dead  and  their  methods  of  sepulture  were  somewhat 
changed.  According  to  the  precepts  of  their  law,  the 
touch  of  a  corpse  rendered  them  unclean. 

After  the  flood,  the  diseases  which  afflicted  the  human 
race  were  substantially  the  same  as  at  the  present  day.* 
Epidemics  of  infection  and  contagion  and  pestilential 
influences  were  prevalent  then  as  now,  the  evils  arising 
from  improper  food  and  drink,  from  bad  air  in  the  dwell- 
ings of  the  people,  and  neglect  of  proper  hygienic  meas- 
ures required  a  watchful  care.  The  Mosaic  statutes 
regarding  things  clean  and  unclean,  though  primarily 
typical,  were  wisely  ordained  by  God  for  the  best  welfare 
of  his  chosen  people.  His  precepts  in  the  ceremonial 
law  were  designed  to  preserve  their  health  and  to  regu- 
late their  moral  life. 


*  "The  records  of  antiquity  show  that  all  kinds  of  pestilences,  including 
febrile  diseases  under  various  appellations,  have  been  known  from  the  earliest 
ages.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Jewish  nation — from  the  first  settlement  of  the 
Israelites  in  unhealthy  Egypt  to  the  present  day,  we  find  noticed  a  series  of 
plagues  or  pestilences  spread  over  the  world  and  destroying  millions  of  the 
species  ;  and  if  we  refer  to  the  history  of  ancient  nations,  as  well  as  to  the  modern 
annals  of  medicine,  we  shall  find  therein  recorded  the  same  character  of  diseases, 
arising  from  like  causes,  occurring  in  similar  seasons,  happening  in  similar 
localities,  and  marked  pretty  generally  by  the  same  circumstances.  The  assump- 
tion of  the  existence  of  any  new  disease,  as  propounded  by  some  modern  authori- 
ties, would  represent  the  Divine  Power  as  dispensing  with  the  laws  of  nature — in 
short,  would  imply  nothing  less  than  the  suspension  or  alteration  of  the  operation 
of  those  laws  which  the  Almighty,  in  His  wisdom,  imposed  on  nature  at  the 
Creation — laws  which  the  Psalmist  of  Israel,  in  his  contemplation  of  the  divine 
goodness  and  greatness  of  Jehovah,  as  displayed  in  the  kingdom  of  nature, 
describes  as  the  admirable  chain  of  natural  causes  and  effects  formed  and  pre- 
served by  him  in  this  lower  world  :  '  Whatsoever  the  Lord  pleaseth  He  doeth  in 
heaven  and  in  the  earth,  in  the  sea  and  in  all  deep  places.  He  causeth  the  vapors 
to  ascend  from  tlie  earth  ;  He  maketh  the  lightnings  for  the  rains;  He  bringeth 
the  wind  out  of  his  treasure ;  He  smote  the  first-born  of  Egypt,  from  man  to 


14  HEBREW   INHUMATION. 

The  Hebrews  were  very  careful  in  the  burial  of  their 
dead.  It  was  considered  to  be  a  great  calamity  to  be 
deprived  of  it,  and  denied  it  to  none — not  even  their 
enemies.  This  concern  for  burial  proceeded  from  a  per- 
suasion of  the  soul's  immortality.  Jeremiah  (viii,  2) 
threatens  the  kings,  priests  and  false  prophets,  who  were 
idolators,  that  their  bones  should  be  cast  out  of  their 
graves  and  be  thrown  like  dung  upon  the  earth.  The 
same  prophet  foretold  that  Jehoiakim,  King  of  Judah, 
who  was  guilty  of  all  manner  of  vice,  among  other  severe 
punishments,  should  be  buried  with  "  the  burial  of  an  ass." 
Jason  (2  Mace,  v  :  10),  who  had  denied   burial  to   many 


beast ;  He  covereth  the  heavens  with  clouds ;    He  prepareth  the  rain  for  the 
earth,'  etc. 

"  The  supposition  of  the  existence  of  any  new  disease  is,  consequently,  unten- 
able, but  to  be  accounted  for  because  of  our  inability  to  trace  diseases  under  the 
same  names  and  precise  characteristic  symptoms  described  by  our  predecessors. 
The  supposed  comparative  modern  origin  of  some  diseases  seems  to  rest  on  the 
absence  or  deficiency  of  distinct  and  express  notice  of  them  in  the  writings  of  the 
ancients,  arising  in  some  measure  from  the  false  and  imperfect  translations  from 
the  original,  and  from  the  practice  of  the  ancients  in  referring  different  malignant 
maladies  to  the  same  pestilential  constitution.  They  classed  all  epidemic  distem- 
pers under  one  general  head  or  term,  viz.  :  pestilence,  plague  or  fever.  Under 
tlie  head  of  consumpiion,  they  noted  all  chronic  diseases;  and  boils,  pustules, 
blotches,  carbuncles,  etc.,  under  that  of  skin  diseases.  Thus  we  read  of  the  same 
epidemics  called  pimples,  pustules,  apostemes  and  gangrenous  sores  now  being 
called  distinct  and  confluent  small-pox,  etc.  The  perusal  of  ancient  writings, 
both  sacred  and  profane,  not  only  affords  ample  evidence  of  the  origin,  nature, 
causes,  progress  and  violence  of  such  maladies  in  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world 
but  they  demonstrate  the  identity  of  ancient  pestilence  and  modern  plague  ;  the 
resemblance  of  ancient  and  modern  fevers  ;  the  similitude  of  burning  boils  and 
moilern  carbuncles ;  the  like  appearance  of  pustules  and  small-iiox — all  tending 
to  prove  tliat  no  material  alteration  in  the  nature  of  any  diseases  or  tlieir  causes 
lias  taken  place  since  the  first  population  of  the  world,  and,  above  all,  that  they 
display  the  perpetual  uniformity  of  Providence  in  the  entire  operation  of  nature's 
works." — Bascom  on  Ancient  Epidemics. 


HEBREW   INHUMATION.  1 5 

Jews,  was  himself  treated  in  the  same  manner.  He  died 
in  a  foreign  land,  and  was  thrown  like  carrion  upon  the 
earth.  Good  men  made  it  a  part  of  their  religious  devo- 
tion to  inter  the  dead,  as  appears  in  the  history  of  Tobit. 
Calmet. 

It  was  a  maxim  not  only  with  the  Jews  but  with  all 
the  nations  of  the  world,  that  holy  places  are  polluted  by 
the  presence  of  dead  carcasses  or  of  dead  men's  bones. 
When  King  Josiah  desired  to  profane  the  altars  dedicated 
to  idols,  he  burned  dead  men's  bones  upon  them,  which 
he  took  from  the  sepulchres  on  the  Mount.  When  God 
threatened  by  Ezekiel  to  punish  Israel  He  told  them  that 
their  altars  should  be  desolate,  and  "  I  will  lay  the  dead 
carcasses  of  the  children  of  Israel  before  their  idols ;  and 
I  will  scatter  your  bones  about  your  altars." 

After  the  Jews  were  settled  in  Canaan,  they  buried 
their  dead  in  various  places.  Their  law  made  no  pro- 
vision for  the  mode  or  place  of  interment.  Sepulchres 
were  in  the  towns  and  country,  by  the  highways,  in  gar- 
dens and  on  mountains.  Those  belonging  to  the  Kings 
of  Judah  were  in  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  Kings'  gardens.* 


*  Extract  from  Dr.  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria:  "While 
walking  out  one  evening  a  few  fields  distant  from  Deir  el  Kamr  with  the  son  of 
my  host  to  see  a  detached  garden  belonging  to  his  father,  he  pointed  out  to  me, 
near  it,  a  small,  solid,  stone  building,  apparently  a  house,  very  solemnly  adding, 
'  Kabbar  beity — the  sejfulchrc  of  my  family.'  It  had  neither  door  nor  window 
He  then  directed  my  attention  to  a  considerable  number  of  similar  buildings  at 
a  distance  which,  to  the  eye,  are  exactly  like  houses,  but  which  are  in  fact  family 
mansions  for  the  dead.  They  have  a  most  melancholy  appearance,  which  made 
him  shudder  while  he  explained  their  use.  They  seem  by  their  di-ad  walls,  whicli 
must  be  opened  at  each  several  interment  of  the  members  of  a  family,  to  say  : 


l6  ANCIENT   METHODS   OF   BURIAL. 

Ezekiel  intimates  that  they  were  dug  under  the  moun- 
tain upon  which  the  temple  stood,  as  God  says,  that  in 
future  his  holy  mountain  should  not  be  polluted  with  the 
dead  bodies  of  their  kings.  The  sepulchre  which  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  provided  for  himself  was  in  his  garden  ; 
that  of  Rachael  was  adjacent  to  the  highway  from  Jeru- 
salem to  Bethlehem  ;  that  of  the  Maccabees  was  at 
Modin  ;  the  Kings  of  Israel  were  buried  in  Samaria : 
Samuel,  in  his  own  house  ;  Moses,  Aaron,  Eleazer  and 
Joshua  in  the  mountains  ;  Saul  and  Deborah  (Rebecca's 
nurse),  under  the  shade  of  trees.  The  sepulchres  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  are  supposed  to  have  been  in 
the  valley  of  Kidron. — Calmct. 

ANCIENT   CUSTOMS   AND   METHODS   OF   BURIAL. 

The  Egyptians  embalmed  their  dead.*      Joseph  com- 


'  This  is  an  unkindly  house,  to  which  visitors  do  not  willingly  throng;  but,  one 
by  one  they  will  l)e  forced  to  enter,  and  none  who  enter  ever  come  out  again." 
Perhaps  this  custom  which  prevails  here  and  in  the  lonely  neighboring  parts  of 
the  mountains  may  have  been  of  great  antiquity,  and  may  serve  to  explain  some 
scripture  phrases.  The  prophet  Samuel  was  buried  '  in  his  house  at  Ramah."  It 
could  hardly  be  in  his  dwelling  house.  Joab  '  was  buried  in  his  own  house  in  the 
wilderness.'  This  was  the  'house  appointed  for  all  living.'  Caqizov  remarks: 
'  It  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  the  sepulchres  were  in  the  houses  themselves 
and  under  the  roof;  and  we  are  therefore  rather  to  understand  by  the  term,  every- 
thing which  belongs  or  appertains  lo  the  house — as  a  court  or  garden,  in  a  corner 
of  which  perhaps  such  a  monument  was  erected."  The  view  of  tliese  sepulchral 
houses  puts  the  matter  beyond  conjecture." 


♦The  art  of  embalming  was  brought  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  jirocess  was  conducted  by  skilled  men  who,  as 
Herodotus  informs  us,  made  it  their  proper  business.  Tills  historian  says  that 
three  modes  were  employed.  By  the  first  and  most  perfect,  the  brain  was  drawn 
through  the  nostrils  by  a  crooked  piece  of  iron,  which  dislodged  the  most  consid- 


HEBREW    BURIAL.  1 7 

manded  that  his  father's  body  should  be  embalmed. 
Joseph's  body  was  also  embalmed  in  Egypt. 

The  Hebrew  people  were  buried  in  sepulchres,  or  in 
graves  in  the  open  fields.  Elijah  was  laid  in  a  grotto 
where  other  bodies  were  placed.      A  grave  was  dug  for 

arable  portion  of  the  contents  of  the  skull,  and  then  the  same  was  cleared  by- 
rinsing  with  drugs.  Next  a  cut  was  made  along  the  flank  with  a  sharp  Ethiopian 
stone  (black  flint  or  Ethiopian  agate),  through  which  the  viscera  of  the  body 
were  removed.  The  cavities  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen  were  then  cleansed  with 
palm  wine  and  by  frequent  infusions  of  pounded  aromatics.  They  were  then  filled 
with  the  purest  bruised  myrrh,  cassia,  and  every  sort  of  spicery,  except  frankin- 
cense, which  was  devoted  to  sacred  uses  in  their  temples.  The  "  spicery,  and  balm, 
and  myrrh  "  carried  by  the  Ishmaelites  down  to  Egypt,  were  principally  for  the  em- 
balmers  (Gen.  xxxvii,  25-28).  The  spice  merchants  are  noticed  in  Solomon's 
time  (i  Kings,  x,  15.) 

When  this  initial  process  was  completed  the  incision  was  sewed  up  and  the 
body  was  placed  in  natrum  (not  nitre,  but  sub-carbonate  of  soda,  which  was 
abundant  at  the  natron  lakes  in  the  Lybian  desert. — Rawlinsoti's  Notes)  for  sev- 
enty days  and  covered  entirely  over.  After  the  expiration  of  this  time,  which  must 
not  be  exceeded,  the  body  was  washed  and  swathed  from  head  to  foot  with  bandages 
of  fine  linen  cloth  coated  with  gum.  and  then  delivered  to  the  friends,  who  en- 
closed it  in  a  case  shaped  according  to  the  human  figure.  It  was  then  placed  in 
a  sepulchral  chamber  upright  against  the  wall. 

The  second  process,  and  less  costly,  was  by  syringing  the  cavities  through  the 
natural  openings  of  the  body  with  an  oil  made  fiom  the  cedar  tree.  The  pas- 
sages by  which  it  might  escape  were  stopped  and  the  body  laid  in  natrum  for  the 
prescribed  number  of  days.  At  the  end  of  the  time  the  cedar  oil  was  allowed  to 
escape,  "and  such  is  the  power,  that  it  brings  with  it  the  whole  stomach  and  intes- 
tines in  a  liquid  state.  The  natrum  has  in  the  meantime  dissolved  the  fiesh,  and 
so  nothing  is  left  of  the  dead  body  but  the  skin  and  bones." 

The  third  method  employed  in  the  case  of  the  poorer  classes  was  to  clear  out 
the  intestines  by  a  "  powerful  cleansing  preparation,"  and  let  the  body  lie  in  na- 
trum the  seventy  days,  after  which  it  was  given  to  the  friends.  Herodotus,  Book 
II,  ^85,  sqq. 

The  historian  includes  in  the  seventy  days  the  whole  period  of  mourning. 
The  embalming  occupies  only  forty  days.     Gen.  i,  3  (Rawlinson). 

Diodorus  Siculus  says  "  the  most  expensive  mode  of  embalmment  cost  a  tal- 
ent of  silver  (^^250,  nearly)  ;  the  second,  22  mince  (^^90)  ;  and  the  third  was  very 
cheap. 

The  Egyptian  mummies  as  we  find  them,  show  a  much  greater  variety  in  the 
methods  of  embalming  than  those  noticed  by  Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  and  the 
prices  doubtless  varied  accordingly.     (Rawlinson). 
3 


1 8  HEBREW    CUSTOMS. 

young  Tobias  in  the  same  field  where  the  other  unfortu- 
nate husbands  of  Sarah  were  deposited.  Our  Saviour 
compares  the  Pharisees  to  "  graves  that  appear  not,  so 
that  the  men  that  walk  over  them  are  not  aware  of  them." 
In  the  case  of  those  who  died  of  leprosy,  the  tumuli  of 
the  graves,  or  other  evidences  of  the  dead  beneath,  were 
avoided,  lest  uncleanness  should  be  contracted. 

A  few  passages  of  scripture  refer  to  burning  of  the 
dead.  The  cases  are  exceptional.  Saul  was  buried 
at  Jabesh  Gilead.  "  David  carried  thence  his  remains 
or  bones,  which  had  been  reduced  to  ashes  by  the 
people,  to  the  land  of  Benjamin"  (2  Sam.,  xxi,  12). 
The  ceremony  of  burning"^^  of  the  body  is  spoken  of  as  a  rite 
in  honor  of  kings.  If  the  practice  did  exist  it  was  of  short 
duration  and  limited  to  a  few. 

Excepting  the  cases  of  Jacob  and  Joseph,  whose  bodies 
were  embalmed  as  a  mark  of  distinguished  honor,  at  the 
expense  of  the  state,  we  have  no  distinct  account  of  em- 
balment  among  the  earlier  Hebrews.  In  later  times  the 
Jews  adopted  it  in  the  case  of  persons  of  rank  and 
fortune.f 

After  the  ablution  of  the  corpse  the  body  was  swathed 
with  numerous  folds  of  linen,  or  other  stuffs,  each  limb:{: 

*  According  to  Spondanus,  the  Hebrews  burned  perfumes  upon  their  dead. 
It  was  called  combustio,  from  wliich  he  says  it  was  wrongly  concluded  that  they 
burned  their  bodies  also. 

t  Scripture  mentions  the  embalming  of  Kings  Josiah  and  Asa,  and  of  our 
Saviour. 

X  The  mummies  of  the  Greeks  may  be  generally  distinguished  by  the  limbs 
being  each  bandaged  separately. — Rawlinson' s  Notes, 


JEWISH    EMBALMING.  I9 

separately  after  the  manner  of  the  Greeks,  and  then  an- 
ointed with  highly  aromatic  unguents.*  A  profuse  appH- 
cation  of  costly  perfumes  was  esteemed  to  be  the  highest 
token  of  respect  which  could  be  paid  to  the  remains  of 
the  departed.  We  learn  from  the  writers  of  the  Talmud 
that  not  less  than  eighty  pounds  weight  of  spices  were 
used  at  the  funeral  of  a  distinguished  Rabbi,  and  Jo- 
sephus  says  (Antiq.  xvii,  8,  §  3)  that  in  the  funeral  pro- 
cession of  Herod,  five  hundred  slaves  and  freedmen  of 
the  court  attended,  carrying  spices..  Thus  we  read  that 
Nicodemus  brought  a  mixture  of  myrrh  and  aloes,  about 
an  hundred  pounds  weight,  to  perform  the  customary  rite 
to  the  body  of  Jesus.  The  two  Marys  also  prepared  them- 
selves to  render  the  same  tokens  of  affection  at  the  dawn 
of  the  first  day  of  the  week. 

It  was  usual  to  repeat  this  process  for  several  days 
together,  that  thereby  the  drugs  and  spices  might  more 
completely  effect  the  exsiccation  and  preservation  of  the 
body.  It  was  then  swathed,  as  before  described.  So  we 
read  that  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  Nicodemus  "  took  the 
body  of  Jesus  and  wrapped  it  in  linen  clothes  with  the 
spices,  as  the  manner  of  the  Jews  is  to  bury."  When 
Lazarus  was  raised  it  is  recorded  that  the  dead  came  forth 
bound  hand  and  foot  in  s^rave  clothes.     About  his  face  was 


*  This  was  a  rite  common  both  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  whose 
writings  it  is  frequently  mentioned — Corpusque  lavant  frigentis  et  unguent. — 
^neid,  b.  vi,  219.  "  For  in  that  she  hath  poured  this  ointment  on  my  body  she 
did  it  for  my  burial— /mj  to  entaphlasai  me — to  embalm  me — dispose  it  for  tlie 
sepulchre. 


20  OUR  LORD  S    RESURRECTION. 

folded  a  napkin, — a  separate  covering,  and  not  continuous 
with  the  bandages.  We  read  that  when  our  Lord  was 
risen,  Peter,  who  went  into  the  sepulchre,  saw  the  linen 
clothes — keiinena — lying  in  sitii,  as  deposited  by  the  em- 
balmers — alone  and  separate  from  the  napkin,  which  was — 
entetuliginenon — wreathed  in  folds  to  form  a  cap  for  the 
the  head. 

When  Lazarus  was  raised,  Jesus  said  :  "  Loose  him  and 
let  him  go."  His  own  body,  probably  more  carefully 
bound,  was  not  holden  by  its  swathings.  He  supernatu- 
rally  passed  out  of  them,  leaving  them  without  disturb- 
ing their  order. 

SEPULCHRES. 

The  holy  sentiments  which  prompted  a  reverential  care 
of  the  dead  led  to  the  provision  in  all  past  time  of  places 
of  deposit  of  the  most  permanent  nature,  constructed 
with  all  the  art  and  skill  of  their  various  periods  and  ac- 
cording to  the  wealth  of  their  founders.  Abraham,  who 
was  "  rich  "  and  mighty,  raised  a  memorial  to  his  dead  in 
Hebron,  which  was  doubtless  in  correspondence  with 
his  riches  and  station.  That  it  was  a  spacious  cave  ap- 
pears from  the  numbers  who,  we  learn  from  scripture 
history,  were  buried  there.  The  references  to  sepulchres 
well  peopled  d^re.  very  numerous.  The  prophet  Ezekiel,  in 
chapter  xxxii,  seems  to  distinguish  certain  nations  and 
countries  by  their  mode  of  burial.  We  recognize  Ashur 
or  Assyria,  Ela'tn  or  Persia,  Mechech  and  Tubal,  Muscovy 


ANCIENT   SEPULCHRES.  21 

and  Siberia,  Edom  and  Zidon,  and  the  countries  adjacent. 
Of  the  Assyrian  sepulchres  we  know  but  httle,  yet  the 
prophet  speaks  of  the  "  sides  of  the  pit  "  (the  cells  or  re- 
cesses in  those  sides),  as  being  inhabited.  From  the 
sepulchres  of  the  kings,  yet  extant  in  Egypt  we  know 
that  the  sovereigns  were  buried  together,  many  sepul- 
chres encircling  the  area,  and  several  chambers  in  one 
sepulchre.  In  Persia  the  evidences  of  sepulchres  cut  in 
the  rocks  are  yet  remaining.  Not  so  (probably)  Mechech 
and  Tubal.  They  threw  up  vast  barrows  over  their 
valiant  leaders,  their  followers  sharing  in  the  same  highly 
raised  mound.  Their  weapons  and  military  ornaments 
were  buried  with  them.  Their  swords  are  to  this  day 
found  under  the  heads  of  their  skeletons.  The  numerous 
barrows  in  the  steppes  of  Russia  are  evidences  on  this 
subject,  and  the  phrase  "  iniquities  shall  lie  heavy  on 
their  bones,"  is  an  allusion  to  the  weight  of  earth  under 
which  they  are  deposited.  The  princes  of  the  north  of 
Syria  and  of  Asia  Minor  have  left  wonderful  proofs  of 
their  skill  in  excavating  rocks,  of  which  recent  discover- 
ies afford  attestation.  The  cryptoe  at  Latikea  or  Laodi" 
cea,  in  the  northern  part  of  Syria,  and  of  Asia  Minor,  are 
sepulchral  chambers  hollowed  in  the  rocky  ground,  some 
ten,  others  twenty  or  thirty  feet  square,  but  not  propor- 
tionate in  height.  The  descent  into  them  is  artfully  con- 
trived. A  range  of  narrow  cells,  wide  enough  for  two  or 
three,  runs  along  the  sides  of  most  of  them,  and  appears 
to   be   the  only  provision  that  has  been  made  for  the' 


22  ANCIENT   SEPULCHRES. 

reception  of  the  dead.  The  sepulchral  chambers  near 
Jebilee  Tortosa  and  the  Serpent  Mountain,  together  with 
those  commonly  called  the  royal  sepulchres  at  Jerusalem, 
are  all  exactly  of  the  same  workmanship  and  contrivance 
with  the  cryptcB  at  Latikea.     Calniet. 

In  Edom,  the  land  of  Esau,  the  traveler  Stephens 
describes  the  tombs  at  Petra,  whose  open  doors  stretch 
away  in  long  ranges,  the  facades  and  architectural  decora- 
tions of  which  were  "  everywhere  handsome." 

Dr.  Clarke  discovered  and  has  fully  described  a  number 
of  sepulchres  which  extend  along  the  side  of  the  ravine 
to  the  south,  east  and  west  of  Mount  Sion.  They  are  a 
series  of  chambers  hewn  with  considerable  art,  each  con- 
taining one  or  more  repositories  of  the  dead,  like  cisterns 
carved  in  the  rock,  upon  the  sides  of  the  chambers.  The 
doors  are  so  low  that  to  look  into  any  one  of  them  it  is 
necessary  to  stoop,  and,  in  some  instances,  to  creep  on 
the  hands  and  knees,*     Vid.  Luke  xxiv  :  12. 

Stephens,  in  describing  the  tombs  of  the  Kings  of 
Egypt  at  Thebes,  says  "  the  world  can  show  nothing  like 
them."  Forty-seven  of  these  tombs  were  entered  on  the 
sacred  registers  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  only  seventeen 


*  Stephens,  describing  the  valley  of  Jehosophat,  says:  "Here  I  was 
among  the  hallowed  places  of  the  Bible.  Here,  all  was  as  nature  left  it,  and 
spared  by  the  desecrating  hand  of  man  ;  and,  as  I  gazed  upon  the  vast  sepulchral 
monuments — the  tombs  of  Absalom,  of  Zachariah  and  Jehosophat,  and  the  thou- 
sands and  tens  of  thousands  of  Hebrew  tombstones  covering  the  declivity  of  the 
mountain — I  had  no  doubt  that  I  was  looking  upon  that  great  gathenng  place 
where,  three  thousand  years  ago,  the  Jew  buried  his  dead  under  the  shadow  o( 
the  Temple  of  Solomon," 


TOMBS    AT  THEBES.  23 

of  which  remained  about  sixty  years  before  Christ.  He 
describes  one  discovered  by  Bclzoni.  Its  entrance  is  by 
a  narrow  door — a  simple  excavation  in  the  side  of  the 
mountain,  without  device  or  ornament.  It  is  309  feet 
long,  and  contains  fourteen  chambers  of  different  sizes. 
The  entrance  hall  is  extremely  beautiful,  27  feet  long 
and  25  broad,  the  walls  covered  with  figures  in  outline, 
but  perfect,  as  if  recently  done.  Descending  a  large  stair- 
case and  through  a  beautiful  corridor,  the  visitor  came  to 
another  staircase,  at  the  foot  of  which  he  found  another 
apartment,  24x13,  and  ornamented  with  sculpture  and 
paintings.  The  sides  of  all  the  chambers  and  corridors 
are  thus  covered,  the  colors  appearing  fresher  as  the 
visitor  advances  towards  the  interior  of  the  tomb ;  fig- 
ures of  Egyptian  gods  and  goddesses,  seeming  to  hover 
round  and  guard  the  remains  of  the  honored  dead. 
Further  on  is  a  large  hall,  28  feet  by  27,  supported  by  two 
rows  of  pillars  ;  and  beyond  this  is  the  entry  to  a  large 
saloon,  with  a  vaulted  roof  32  feet  by  27.  Opening  from 
this  were  several  other  chambers  of  different  dimensions, 
one  of  them  unfinished,  and  one  43  feet  long  by  17.6 
wide,  in  which  was  found  a  mummy  of  a  bull  ;  but  in  the 
centre  of  the  grand  saloon  was  a  sarcophagus  of  the  finest 
oriental  alabaster,  only  two  inches  thick,  minutely  sculp- 
tured within  and  without  with  several  hundred  figures, 
and  perfectly  transparent  when  a  light  is  placed  within  it. 
All  over  the  corridors  and  chambers  the  walls  are  adorned 
with    sculptures    and    paintings    in    intaglio    and    relief, 


24  TOMBS   AT   THEBES. 

representing  gods,  goddesses  and  the  hero  of  the  tomb 
(supposed  to  be  Pharoah  Necho)  in  the  most  prominent 
events  of  his  life,  priests,  religious  processions  and  sacri- 
fices, boats  and  agricultural  scenes,  and  the  most  familiar 
pictures  of  every-day  life,  in  colors  as  fresh  as  if  painted 
not  more  than  a  month  ago  ;  and  the  large  saloon,  lighted 
up  with  the  blaze  of  torches,  seemed  more  fitted  for 
a  banqueting  hall  for  song  and  dance  than  a  burial  place 
for  the  dead,  "  At  different  times,"  says  our  traveler,  "  I 
wandered  among  all  these  tombs.  All  were  of  the  same 
general  character,  all  possessed  the  same  beauty  and 
magnificence  of  design  and  finish,  and,  in  all  at  the 
extreme  end,  was  a  large  saloon  adorned  with  sculpture 
and  paintings  in  extraordinary  beauty,  and  containing  a 
sarcophagus.  Every  sarcophagus  is  broken,  and  the 
bones  of  the  Kings  of  Egypt  are  scattered.  In  one  I 
picked  up  a  skull.  I  mused  over  it  a  moment  and  handed 
it  to  Paul  (his  attendant),  who  moralized  at  large  :  '  That 
man,'  said  he,  'once  talked  and  laughed  and  sang  and 
danced,  and  ate  macaroni.'  'The  kings  of  the  nations  did 
lie  in  glory,  every  one  in  his  own  house,  but  thou  art  cast 
out  of  thy  grave  like  an  abominable  branch.'  "* 


*  The  sepulchral  chamber  was  not  in  the  houses  of  the  Egyptians.  Hero- 
dotus says  it  was  in  a  room  made  for  the  purpose,  which  was  a  part  of  (he 
tomb. 

In  the  floor  of  this  chamber  a  pit  was  sunk,  often  to  the  depth  of  forty  feet  or 
more,  where,  after  certain  services  performed,  the  embalmed  body  (mummy)  was 
deposited.  Tombs  less  expensive  were  without  a  room,  but  only  the  pit,  which 
was  the  proper  place  of  sepulture.  The  name  "  tomb  "  is  applied  to  the  apart- 
ment above  the  pit.  The  coffin  or  mummy  case  was  placed  at  the  bottom,  or  in 
a  lateral  chamber  or  recess  in  "  the  sides  of  the  ph."—J?awiinson's  Notes. 


EGYPTIAN    MUMMIES.  25 

The  same  traveler  says  that  notwithstanding  the  vast 
numbers  of  mummies  which  have  been  taken  and  scat- 
tered over  the  world,  and  the  mummy  cases  used  for  fire- 
wood by  the  Arabs,  it  is  supposed  that  there  are  still  (at 
the  time  of  his  writing)  from  eight  to  ten  millions  of 
mummied  bodies  in  Thebes.  The  whole  mountain  side 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  river  is  one  vast  necropolis.  The 
open  doors  of  tombs  are  seen  in  long  ranges  and  at  dif- 
ferent elevations,  and  on  the  plains  pits  have  been  opened 
in  which  have  been  found  a  thousand  mummies  at  a  time. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  400,000,000  human  mummies 
were  made  in  Egypt  from  the  beginning  of  the  art 
of  embalming  until  its  discontinuance  in  the  seventh 
century. 

INTERMENT    AMONG   THE  GREEKS. 

The  most  ancient  custom  with  the  Greeks  was  burial. 
It  is  supposed  that  their  subsequent  usage  of  burning 
was   introduced  at   the  seige  of  Troy,*  when  the  great 


*  Homer  describes  the  ceremonies  of  the  funeral  pyre  of  the  Greek  hero  slain 
by  Hector : 

"  Permit  the  mourning  legions  to  retire, 
And  let  the  chiefs  alone  attend  the  pyre ; 
The  pious  care  be  ours  the  dead  to  burn 
He  said  ;  the  people  to  their  tents  return, 
While  those  deputed  to  inter  the  slain 
Heap  with  a  rising  pyramid  the  place. 
A  hundred  feet  in  length,  a  hundred  wide. 
The  growing  structure  spreads  on  every  side  ; 
High  on  the  top  the  manly  corse  they  lay, 
And  well-fed  sheep  and  sable  oxen  slay. 
Achilles  covered  with  their  fat  the  dead 
And  the  pil'd  victims  round  the  body  spread ; 


26  INTERMENT   AMONG   THE    GREEKS. 

slaughter  and  the  example  of  the  Phrygians  determined 
them  to  consume  the  bodies  of  the  slain  as  the  readiest 
mode  of  disposing  of  them.  The  ashes  of  the  heads  of 
the  nations  and  of  the  generals  who  had  served  their 
country  were  distinguished  by  being  placed  in  urns  and 
deposited  in  houses  set  apart  for  them,  and  sometimes  in 
their  temples,  but  these  instances  were  rare.  Interments 
were  more  generally  used  in  Greece  than  elsewhere,  and 
always  without  the  walls  of  their  cities.  Burning  was  by 
no  means  the  general  custom,  but  was  regarded  as  more 
honorable,  and  was  used  among  the  higher  classes.  Plato 
wrote  to  Socrates  that  it  was  a  matter  of  indifference  to 
him  whether  his  body  was  buried  or  burned.      It  was  a 


Then  jars  of  honey  and  of  fragrant  oil, 
Suspends  around,  low  bending  o'er  the  pile. 
Four  sprightly  coursers  with  a  deadly  groan 
Pour  forth  their  lives  and  on  the  pyre  are  thrown. 
Of  nine  large  dogs,  domestic  at  his  board. 
Fall  two,  selected  to  attend  their  lord. 
Then  last  of  all,  and  horrible  to  tell. 
Sad  sacrifice,  twelve  Trojan  captives  fell. 
On  these  the  rage  of  fire  victorious  preys, 
Involves  and  joins  them  in  one  common  blaze." 

As  the  pile  no  longer  blazed,  Achilles  addressed  the  Grecians  thronged  around 

him  : 

"  Ye  kings  and  princes  of  the  Achaian  name  ! 

First  let  us  quench  the  yet  remaining  flame 

With  sable  wine  ;  then  (as  the  rites  direct) 

The  hero's  bones  with  carefiil  view  select ; 

(Apart  and  easy  to  be  known  they  lie 

Amidst  the  heap,  and  obvious  to  the  eye  : 

The  rest  around  the  margin  will  be  seen 

Promiscuous,  steeds  and  immolated  men.) 

These,  wrapped  in  double  cawls  of  fat,  prepare; 

And  in  the  golden  vase  dispose  with  care, 

There  let  them  rest,  witii  decent  honor  laid," 

— Jliad,  b.  xxii. 


GREEK   BURIAL  WITHOUT  THE   CITIES.  27 

special  provision  in  the  codes  of  the  most  famous  legis- 
lators.* 

Coecrops  at  Athens  directed  that  the  dead  should  be 
carried  without  the  walls.  Solon  established  the  same 
regulations.  The  few  who  were  buried  within  the  walls 
were  heroes  and  those  who  had  sacrificed  themselves  for 
their  country.  Plato  did  not  allow  interments  in  the 
fields  used  for  culture.  Their  religion  gave  sanction  to 
the  custom,  though  no  nation  was  more  solicitous  to  give 
their  dead  the  honors  of  sepulture.  Those  who  violated 
the  tombs  were  regarded  as  victims  irrecoverably  given 
over  to  the  wrath  of  the  gods.  "  The  sanctity  of  tombs, 
(many  of  which  became  the  temples  of  their  divinities 
and  were  considered  as  asylums  for  the  unfortunate  and 
accused)  the  respect  which  they  bore  for  the  ashes  and 
the  memory  of  their  ancestors,  the  penalties  with  which 
the  laws  of  religion  menaced  the  violators  of  those  cus- 
toms, the  curses  denounced  against  them  by  the  priests, 
in  a  word,  the  whole  religious  doctrine,  and  the  mythology 
of  the  Greeks  had  in  view  the  enforcement  of  the  laws 
for  the  interment  of  the  dead  at  a  distance  from  the  hab- 
itations of  the  living,  "f     Vicq.  Dazyr. 


*  Lycurgus  was  the  only  one  who  permitted  burials  in  cities,  in  temples, 
and  in  public  places.  His  purpose  was  to  arouse  the  youth  of  Sparta  to  bravery 
and  courage  by  familiarizing  with  the  idea  of  death . 

t  Cicero,  in  one  of  his  epistles,  in  which  he  describes  the  assassination 
of  his  friend,  M.  Marcellus,  at  Athens,  says  that  he  had  not  been  able  to  obtain 
permission  of  the  Athenians  that  the  body  should  be  buried  in  the  city.  They 
said  that  such  permission  was  inadmissible  on  religious  grounds,  and  that  it  had 
never  been  granted  to  any  one. 


28  ROMAN   BURIAL. 

CUSTOMS   OF    THE   ROMANS. 

The  Romans  in  their  earlier  days  practised  interment. 
Vicq.  Dazyr  says  that  after  their  settlement  in  Italy  they 
constructed  tombs  at  their  country  places,  and  placed  in 
them  the  bodies  in  vases  large  enough  to  enclose  them. 
Numa's  tomb  was  on  Mt.  Janiculum,  which  was  not  then 
included  within  the  city.  The  succeeding  Kings  had 
tombs  in  the  field  of  Mars,  situated  below  the  city  and 
the  Tiber.  The  Kings  of  Rome  alone  had  the  privilege 
of  being  buried  on  that  mount.  No  private  person  could 
be  placed  there  unless  distinguished  by  some  worthy 
action.  The  vestals  were  permitted  burial  within  the 
city  walls.  Those  who  had  broken  the  vow  of  chastity 
were  buried  in  a  field  to  which  that  sin  had  given  the 
name  of  the  "field  of  crime."  It  seemed  to  be  an  ac- 
cepted fact  that  interment  of  the  dead  within  the  city 
and  inhabited  places  was  dangerous  to  the  living,  and  the 
places  -of  burial  were  removed  to  some  distance.  The 
law  of  the  twelve  tables  expressly  forbade  the  burn- 
ing or  burying  of  the  dead  within  the  city. 

By  the  terms  of  that  law  it  appears  that  from  the  4th 
century  of  the  republic,  burning  and  burial  were  both 
practised.  The  outrages  to  the  buried  bones  exposed  to 
the  barbarians  in  war,  and  their  religious  sentiments,  led 
them  to  favor  burning  and  to  bring  the  funeral  pile  more 
and  more  into  use.* 


*  The  "pile  was  of  rough    logs,   with    four    equal  sides,   of  which  the  law 
of  the  twelve  tables  forbade  any  polishing  or  adornment,  but  they  were  some- 


ROMAN  BURIAL  WITHOUT  THE  CITY.  ig 

The  law  appointed  the  open  country  for  funeral  rites 
and  inhumations.  The  practice  of  these  ceremonies  was 
scarcely  permitted  contiguous  to  the  suburbs  of  the  city. 
It  was  ordained  that  the  dead  should  be  respected, 
"  Their  sanctuary  was  thus  rendered  inviolable  and  their 
sepulture  sacred.  In  whatsoever  place  the  dead  was 
interred,  all  the  ground  which  surrounded  it  was  with- 
drawn from  the  purposes  of  trade  or  commerce."  In  the 
course  of  time  tombs  ceased  to  be  constructed  at  the 
country  seats,  and  those  of  the  most  illustrious  families 
were  transported  to  the  highways.  Thus  the  great  roads 
and  avenues  were  named  the  Aurelian,  Flaminian, 
Lucinian,  Appian,  Lavinian  and  Julian  way,  after  the 
families  whose  superb  mausoleums  and  sarcophagi  of 
marble  adorned  them. 

The  common  people  among  the  Romans  had  also  their 
funeral  piles  and  public  tombs.  FIoc  miser cb  plebi,  stabat 
commune  sepiilchrimt. — Hor.      Such  were  the  small  wells 


times  covered  with  dark  leaves.  The  body  was  placed  upon  the  pile,  with  the 
couch  upon  which  it  had  been  carried.  The  nearest  relative,  with  averted  face, 
applied  the  torch,  and  the  flames  were  fed  with  cups  of  oil,  ornaments,  clothing, 
and  the  favorite  viands  of  the  deceased.  To  these  were  added  various  perfumes, 
which,  though  forbidden  by  law,  were  rendered  necessary  by  the  disgusting  odor. 
In  the  case  of  an  Emperor  or  illustrious  General,  there  was  much  additional  cere- 
mony. Animals  were  killed  and  laid  on  the  pile,  and  in  earlier  times,  captives 
and  slaves.  The  soldiers  marched  thrice  around  the  pile.  In  the  latter  days  of 
Rome  gladiators  were  hired  to  fight  about  it.  W^hen  the  burning  was  completed, 
the  embers  were  soaked  with  wine.  The  bones  and  ashes  of  the  deceased  were 
then  gathered  by  the  nearest  relatives,  who  sprinkled  them  with  perfume  and 
placed  them  in  an  urn.  These  urns  were  often  very  beautiful  and  richly  deco- 
rated ;  they  were  commonly  of  marble,  alabaster  or  baked  clay,  and  bore  an  in- 
scription beginning  with  the  letters  D.  M.  or  D.  M.  S. — Dis  Manibus  Sacrum," — 
Adams. 


30  PERSIAN   BURIAL. 

{pHtcolt)  or  deep  cavities  into  which  the  dead  bodies  were 
cast.  The  places  where  the  bodies  were  burned  were 
called  iistrincB  or  public  funeral  piles.  The  small  wells  were 
on  the  Hill  Esquiline.  The  neighborhood  of  the  Esquiline 
becoming  infected  by  the  great  numbers  of  the  buried  dead, 
it  was  abandoned  and  became,  history  says,  afterwards 
the  possession  of  Maecenas.  There  he  had  his  tomb,  as 
also  Horace,  his  friend,  whose  remains  repose  near  him. 
"  From  all  these  laws,  customs  and  usages  of  the 
Romans,  in  relation  to  their  modes  of  burial,  which,  with 
few  exceptions,  continued  in  force  until  the  reign  of  the 
Caesars,  it  is  evident  that  the  immense  City  of  Rome  was 
better  protected  against  the  recurrence  of  epidemic  dis- 
eases than  many  of  our  own  capital  cities."     Pascalis. 

PERSIAN   BURIAL. 

The  ancient  Persians  threw  out  their  dead  on  the 
roads.  If  they  were  promptly  devoured  by  the  wild 
beasts  it  was  esteemed  a  great  honor  ;  a  misfortune,  if 
not.  They  believed  that  they  must  have  been  very  bad 
if  even  the  beasts  would  not  touch  them.  The  relations 
of  the  dead  took  it  as  a  presage  of  some  great  misfortune 
which  was  imminent,  and  that  the  souls  which  had 
inhabited  the  bodies,  being  dragged  down  to  hell,  would 
not  fail  to  return  and  trouble  them. 

The  Parthians,  Medes,  Iberians  and  Caspians  had  such 
a  horror  of  the  corruption  and  decomposition  of  the 
dead,  and  of  their  being  eaten  by  worms,  that  they  threw 


PARSEE  BURIAL.  3I 

the  bodies  into  the  open  fields  to  be  devoured  by  wild 
beasts,  believing  that  those  so  devoured  would  not  be 
entirely  extinct,  but  enjoy  a  partial  life  in  their  living 
sepulchres.     Yarrow  on  MorUiary  Customs. 

The  "  Towers  of  Silence"  show  to  this  day  the  custom  of 
the  Parsees,  in  the  exposure  of  their  dead  to  birds  of  prey. 
This  people  are  descendants  of  the  ancient  Persians — the 
fire  worshippers,  in  Persia  ;  called  Parsees  in  India. 
Prof.  Monier  Williams  writes  from  Calcutta,  1876,  con- 
cerning these  Towers  of  Silence,  which  are  erected  in  a 
garden,  approached  by  a  well-constructed  private  road 
and  barred  by  strong,  iron  gates.  "  No  English  noble- 
man's garden  could  be  better  kept,  and  no  pen  can  do 
justice  to  the  glories  of  its  flowering  shrubs,  cypresses 
and  palms.  It  seemed  the  very  ideal,  not  only  of  a  place 
of  sacred  silence,  but  of  peaceful  rest."  The  towers  are 
five  in  number,  of  black  granite,  and  constructed  with 
great  solidity.  The  oldest  was  built  200  years  since,  and 
is  the  smallest,  being  only  used  for  a  certain  family.  The 
next  oldest  was  erected  in  1756,  the  others,  later.  The 
writer  says  :  "  Though  wholly  destitute  of  ornament  and 
even  the  simplest  moldings,  the  parapet  of  each  tower 
possesses  an  extraordinary  coping,  which  instantly 
attracts  and  fascinates  the  gaze.  It  is  a  coping  formed, 
not  of  dead  stone,  but  of  living  vultures.  These  birds, 
on  the  occasion  of  my  visit,  had  settled  themselves,  side 
by  side,  in  perfect  order  and  in  a  complete  circle  around 


32  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE. 

the  parapets  of  the  towers,  with  their  heads  pointing 
inwards  ;  and  so  lazily  did  they  sit  there,  and  so  motion- 
less was  their  whole  mien,  that,  except  for  their  color, 
they  might  have  been  carved  out  of  the  stone  work." 

He  describes  one  of  the  towers  as  a  round  column  or 
massive  cylinder,  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high,  and  at 
least  forty  feet  in  diameter,  built  of  solid  stone,  except  in 
the  centre,  where  a  well  five  or  six  feet  across  leads  down 
to  an  excavation  under  masonry,  with  four  drains  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  terminated  by  holes  filled  with  char- 
coal. Round  this  solid  cylinder  is  the  stone  parapet,  ten 
or  twelve  feet  high,  which  conceals  from  view  the  interior. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  solid  stone  work  is  divided  into 
seventy-two  compartments,  or  open  receptacles,  radiating 
like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  from  the  central  well,  and 
arranged  in  three  concentric  rings,  separated  by  narrow 
ridges  of  stone,  grooved  to  act  as  channels  for  conveying 
all  moisture  from  the  receptacles  into  the  well,  and  thus 
to  the  lower  drains.  Each  circle  of  the  open  compart- 
ments is  divided  from  the  next  by  a  pathway,  making 
three  circular  pathways,  and  these  crossed  by  another 
conducting  from  the  exterior  door  which  admits  the 
corpse  bearer.  We  give  his  description  of  a  burial.  He 
says  that  while  he  was  engaged  in  examining  the  work, 
"  a  sudden  stir  among  the  vultures  made  us  raise  our 
heads.  At  least  a  hundred  birds,  collected  around  one  of 
the  towers,  began  to  show  symptoms  of  excitement,  while 
others     swooped     down     from    the    neighboring    trees. 


PARSEE   HURIAL.  33 

*  *      *      A    funeral    was    seen    to    be    approaching. 

*  *  ^  The  body,  swathed  in  a  white  sheet,  is 
placed  in  a  curved,  metal  trough,  open  at  both  ends,  and 
the  corpse  bearers,  dressed  in  pure  white  garments,  pro- 
ceed with  it  towards  the  towers.  *  *  *  The  funeral 
I  witnessed  was  that  of  a  child.  When  the  two  corpse 
bearers  reached  the  path  leading  by  a  steep  incline  to  the 
door  of  the  tower,  the  mourners,  about  eight  in  number, 
turned    back   and    entered    one    of    the   prayer   houses. 

*  *  *  The  two  bearers  speedily  unlocked  the  door, 
reverently  conveyed  the  body  of  the  child  into  the 
interior,  and,  unseen  by  anyone,  laid  it  uncovered  in  one 
of  the  open  receptacles  nearest  the  central  well.  In  two 
minutes  they  reappeared  with  the  empty  bier  and  white 
cloth,  and  scarcely  had  they  closed  the  door,  when  a 
dozen  vultures  swooped  down  upon  the  body  and  were 
rapidly  followed  by  others.  In  five  minutes  more  the 
satiated  birds  fly  back  and  lazily  settle  down  again  on  the 
parapet.     They  had  left  nothing  behind  but  a  skeleton." 

The  Parsees  declare  that  they  have  adopted  this  mode 
of  burial  in  obedience  to  the  teachings  of  their  prophet 
Zoroaster  (who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  the  time 
of  the  fall  of  Babylon,  B.  C.  536).  He  taught  that  the 
elements  were  symbols  of  the  Deity  ;  that  earth,  fire  and 
water  ought  never  to  be  defiled  by  contact  with  putrify- 
ing  flesh.  Naked  we  came  into  the  world,  and  naked  we 
ought  to  leave  it  ;  that  the  decaying  particles  of  our 
bodies  should  be  dissipated  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  in 


34  NORTH    AMERICAN   INDIAN   BURIAL. 

such  a  way  that  neither  mother  earth  nor  the  beings  she 
supports  should  be  contaminated  in  the  slightest  degree. 
They  thus  build  their  towers  on  the  top  of  hills  above  all 
human  habitation — not  that  their  dead  should  be  con- 
sumed by  vultures,  but  dissipated  in  the  speediest  possi- 
ble manner,  and  without  the  possibility  of  polluting  the 
earth  or  contaminating  a  single  being  dwelling  thereon. 
God  sends  the  vultures,  they  say ;  but  these  do  their 
work  more  expeditiously  than  millions  of  insects  would 
do  if  the  bodies  were  buried  in  the  ground.  Even  the 
rain  water  which  washes  the  skeletons  is  conducted  by 
channels  into  purifying  charcoal. 

The  towers  which  have  been  described  contain  the 
bones  of  all  the  Parsees  who  have  died  in  Bombay  for 
the  last  two  hundred  years.       Yarrow. 

NORTH   AMERICAN   INDIAN    BURIAL. 

The  Indians  of  North  America  are  descended  from 
very  ancient  races.  The  ruins  of  constructions  in  South 
America  date  within  500  years  of  the  foundation  of 
Babylon.  Fragments  of  early  history,  the  relics  of  con- 
structions and  ethnological  characteristics  lead  to  the 
conviction  that  the  earliest  nations  in  America  were  from 
different  divisions  of  the  Japhetic  and  Semitic  races.  The 
ruins  in  Central  America,  as  described  by  the  traveler, 
Stephens,  with  accurate  representations,  testify  to  the 
antiquity  of  the  ancient  nations  of  that  part  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  their  identity  with  the  old  nations  of  Egypt, 


NORTH  AMERICAN   INDIAN  BURIAL.  35 

Persia  and  Phoenicia.  The  great  mounds  of  the  West, 
particularly  those  of  Ohio,  are  of  very  great  antiquity,  and 
demonstrate  that  they  were  constructed  in  a  period  when 
the  population  was  more  vast  than  it  has  been  at  any  pe- 
riod of  time  since. 

Doctor  H.  C.  Yarrow,  in  his  contribution  to  the  Bu- 
reau of  Ethnology,  Smithsonian  Institution,  classifies  the 
modes  of  burial  among  the  North  American  Indians  as 
follows  : 

1st.  By  Inhumation. — This  is  the  most  common  mode 
of  interment.  The  simplest  form,  as  noted  by  School- 
craft, was  that  adopted  by  the  Mohawks,  of  New  York. 
They  made  a  large  round  hole  in  which  the  body  was 
placed  either  upright  or  on  its  haunches.  They  covered 
the  grave  with  timber  and  raised  over  it  the  earth  in  a 
round  mound.  The  Carolina  tribes  first  placed  the  corpse 
in  a  cane  hurdle  or  cofifin,  and  after  the  funeral  rites  were 
celebrated  it  was  placed  in  its  sepulchre.  The  bottom  of 
the  grave  is  covered  with  two  or  three  layers  of  bark,  and 
over  the  bodies  layers  of  bark  many  times  double,  and 
earth  thereon  well  beaten  down ;  the  body  lies  in  a  vault, 
nothing  touching  it. 

The  Sacs  and  Foxes  of  Nebraska  are  careful  to  prevent 
the  earth  coming  in  contact  with  the  body.  They  for- 
merly put  bark  in  the  bottom  of  the  graves,  before  the 
bodies  were  deposited  in  them,  and  timber  or  sawed  plank 
over  them.  The  corpse  was  always  enveloped  in  a  blan- 
ket, and  the  head  placed  to  the  east.      They  now  employ 


36  NORTH   AMERICAN   INDIAN  BURIAL. 

coffins  rudely  constructed.  The  Creeks  and  Seminoles  of 
Florida  bury  about  four  feet  deep  in  a  round  hole  directly 
under  the  cabin  or  rock  wherever  the  dead  one  had  lived. 
The  body  is  placed  in  a  sitting  posture.  The  grave  is  then 
covered  with  canes,  and  over  them  a  firm  layer  of  clay. 
The  Pimas  of  Arizona  tie  the  bodies  of  the  dead  with 
ropes,  passing  the  latter  around  the  neck  and  under  the 
knees,  and  then  drawing  them  tight  until  the  body  is 
doubled  up  and  forced  into  a  sitting  posture.  The  graves 
are  from  four  to  five  feet  deep,  round,  and  about  two 
feet  in  diameter.  They  then  hollow  out  to  one  side  of 
the  bottom  a  vault  large  enough  to  contain  the  body. 
The  grave  is  then  filled  up  level  with  the  ground.  The 
Comanchcs  wrap  tlie  body  in  a  blanket,  bind  it  tightly 
with  cords  into  a  round,  compact  form,  and  then  literally 
tumble  it  into  an  excavation  selected  for  the  purpose, 
usually  a  deep  wash  or  head  of  canon,  in  which  their 
country  abounds. 

The  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico,  who,  next  to  the 
Choctaws  and  Cherokees,  are  the  most  civilized  of  our 
tribes,  bury  in  graves  six  feet  deep,  seven  feet  long  and 
two  wide.  When  filled  up  the  ground  is  leveled  and  no 
mound  is  left  to  mark  the  spot.  The  corpse  is  baled  up 
in  a  large,  well-tanned  buffalo  robe,  and  tied  around 
tight  with  a  rope  or  lasso  made  for  the  purpose. 

There  are  burying  grounds  in  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
Illinois,  and  also  in  Central  America,  with  regular  graves. 
They  are  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  deep,  with  slabs 


NORTH  AMERICAN   INDIAN  BURIAL.  37 

of  stone  on  the  bottom,  ends  and  sides.  When  the 
corpse  is  placed,  in  some  horizontal,  in  others,  in  a  sitting 
posture,  it  was  covered  with  earth,  with  or  without 
top  slabs.  In  Tennessee  the  burial  places  or  cemeteries  are 
exceedingly  abundant  throughout  the  State.  Often  hun- 
dreds of  graves  may  be  found  on  a  single  hillside.  Scat- 
tered graves  and  mounds  are  also  found,  the  latter 
composed  of  a  large  number  of  cyst  graves.  With  men, 
pipes,  stone-hammers,  knives,  arrowheads,  &c.,  are 
usually  found.  With  women,  pottery,  rude  beads,  shells, 
&c.  With  children,  toys  of  pottery,  beads,  curious  peb- 
bles, &c.     Major  I.  W.  Poivell. 

In  the  graves  of  all  these  tribes  various  articles  are 
found. 

The  mounds  so  common  in  our  Western  States  are  de- 
positories of  the  dead  in  the  earth. 

Burials  beneath  the  house  where  the  deceased  died  is 
common  in  some  tribes.  When  it  occurs,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  burial  of  children,  the  house  is  usually  vaca- 
ted and  another  home  constructed. 

Natural  or  artificial  holes  in  the  ground,  and  fissures  in 
the  rocks  have  been  used  as  places  of  deposit  for  the 
dead  from  the  earliest  times,  and  are  used  to  the  present 
day,  not  only  by  the  American  Indians,  but  by  peoples 
of  mental  culture  and  civilization.  In  almost  every 
State  in  the  Union  burial  caves  have  have  been  dis- 
covered. 

The  second  class  of  burials  are  those  by  embahmnent  or 


3$  NORTH    AMERICAN    INDIAN    BURIAL. 

mummification.     The  bodies  are  placed,  after  the  process, 

in  the  earth,  in  caves,  mounds,  boxes  on  scaffolds,  or  in 
charnel  houses.  From  the  statements  of  the  older 
writers  on  North  American  Indians,  mummifying  seems 
to  have  been  practised  among  certain  tribes  in  Virginia, 
the  Carolinas  and  Florida,  especially  for  persons  of  dis- 
tinction. There  is  a  class  of  mummies  found  in  the 
saltpetre  and  other  caves  of  Kentucky.  It  is  an  open 
question  whether  measures  had  been  taken  to  preserve 
them,  or  whether  the  preservative  influences  of  the  soil 
or  places  of  deposit  would  account  for  the  condition  in 
which  the  mummies  were  found. 

The  third  class,  surface  burial,  has  been  practised  to 
only  a  limited  extent,  so  far  as  has  been  discovered.  The 
methods  varied.  Some  placed  their  dead  in  hollow  trees, 
in  an  upright  position  ;  occasionally  in  a  hollow  log  lying 
on  the  ground.  Other  tribes,  in  logs  split  and  hollowed 
out. 

Blackbird,  the  famous  chief  of  the  Omahas,  was  buried 
seated  on  his  favorite  snow-white  horse.  He  was  in  full 
dress  and  fully  equipped,  and  on  his  head  waved,  to  the 
last  moment,  his  beautiful  head-dress  of  the  war-eagles 
plumes.  The  burial,  as  described  by  Catlin,  was  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Turfs  were  brought  and  placed  around  the  feet 
and  legs  of  the  horse  and  gradually  laid  up  to  its  sides, 
and  at  last  over  the  back  and  head  of  the  unsuspecting 
animal,  and  last  over  the  head  and  even  the  eagle  plumes 
of     its   valiant    rider,   where,   all    together,    they    have 


NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIAN  BURIAL.  39 

smouldered  and  remained  undisturbed  to  the  present 
day." 

Black  Hawk,  chief  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  of  Illinois, 
was  placed  upon  the  ground  in  a  sitting  posture,  his 
hands  grasping  his  cane.  The  ground  around  it  was 
picketed,  as  a  protection  against  wild  animals.  The 
chiefs  of  that  tribe  were  usually  buried  in  this  manner. 

Other  modes  of  surface  burial  were :  placing  the  bodies 
on  trees,  on  the  ground  a  little  scooped  out  and  covered 
with  planks,  poles  or  birch  bark,  and  sometimes  beneath 
heaps  of  rocks. 

Cremation  is  also  noted  as  a  mode  of  disposing  of  the 
dead.  It  was  used  to  a  considerable  extent  among  the 
North  American  tribes,  especially  those  inhabiting  the 
western  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  process 
was  by  a  funeral  pyre  bearing  some  resemblance  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman  funeral  rite  of  burning.* 


*Gen.  Chas.  H.  Tompkins,  U.  S.  A.,  furnishes  the  following  account: 
"  A  very  singular  case  of  aboriginal  burial  was  brought  to  my  notice  recently  by 
Mr.  Wm.  Klingbeil,  of  Philadelphia.  On  the  New  Jersey  bank  of  the  Delaware 
river,  a  short  distance  below  Gloucester  City,  the  skeleton  of  a  man  was  found 
buried  in  a  standing  position,  in  a  high,  red,  sandy-clay  bluff  overlooking  the 
stream.  A  few  inches  below  the  surface  the  neck  bones  were  found,  and  below 
these  the  remainder  of  the  skeleton,  with  the  exception  of  the  bones  of  the  hands 
and  feet.  The  skull  being  wanting,  it  could  not  be  determined  whether  the 
remains  were  those  of  an  Indian  or  of  a  white  man  ;  but,  in  either  case,  the  sep- 
ulture was  peculiarly  aboriginal.  A  careful  exhumation  and  critical  examination 
by  Mr.  Klingbeil,  disclosed  the  fact  that  around  the  lower  extremities  of  the  body 
had  been  placed  a  number  of  large  stones,  which  revealed  traces  of  fire,  in  con- 
junction with  charred  wood,  and  the  bones  of  the  feet  had  undoubtedly  been  con- 
sumed. This  makes  it  appear  reasonably  certain  that  the  subject  had  been 
executed — probably  as  a  prisoner  of  war.  A  pit  had  been  dug,  in  which  he  was 
placed  erect  and  a  fire  kindled  around  him.     Then  be  had  been  buried  alive — or, 


40  NORTH   AMERICAN   INDIAN   BURIAL. 

The  last  forms  of  burial  described  by  Dr.  Yarrow  are 
what  he  terms  aerial  sepulture  and  aquatic  burial.  These 
are  nearly  allied  to  the  former  class,  and  embrace  burial 
in  lodges  on  a  platform  and  beneath  a  tent,  covered  with 
buffalo  hides  or  brush ;  in  houses  built  in  various  designs, 
being  wooden  tombs  ;  in  a  box  or  sarcophagus  of  wood, 
or  a  canoe,  raised  a  little  from  the  earth,  or  on  scaffolds, 
and  by  placing  the  bodies  on  trees. 

Aquatic  burial  is  performed  by  depositing  the  corpse 
in  a  canoe  and  setting  it  afloat  on  streams  or  lakes  remote 
from  habitations.  The  Indians  are  very  careful  not  to 
pollute  the  springs  or  streams  near  which  they  live  by 
aquatic  burial,  unless  it  may  be  to  poison  the  springs  for 
white  persons. 

In  "  The  Voyage  of  the  Vega  round  Asia  and  Europe," 
made  in  i878-'79  by  Baron  Nordenskiold  in  command, 
is  a  notice  of  a  burying  place  in  the  primeval  forest  of 
Siberia,  near  the  houses  of  the  inhabitants.  The  corpses 
were  placed  in  large  coffins  above  ground,  at  which,  in 
most  cases,  a  cross  was  erected.  In  one  a  sacred  picture 
was  inserted.  Some  clothes  which  had  belonged  to  the 
departed  were  hanging  on  a  bush  beside  the  grave, 
together  with   a   bundle   containing  food.     The   crosses 


at  least,  if  he  did  not  survive  the  fiery  ordeal,  his  body  was  imbedded  in  the  earth, 
with  the  exception  of  his  head,  which  was  left  protruding  above  the  surface.  As 
no  trace  of  the  cranium  could  be  found,  it  seems  probable  that  the  head  had  either 
been  burned  or  severed  from  the  body  and  removed,  or  else  left  a  prey  to  raven- 
ous birds.  The  skeleton,  which  would  have  measured  fully  six  feet  in  height,  was 
undoubtedly  that  of  a  man," 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  BURIAL.  4I 

indicated  that  they  had  some  knowledge  of  the  Christian 
religion,  but  heathen  customs  adhered  to  them.  Among 
the  Chukches  of  the  Polar  sea  mounds  were  discovered 
by  the  same  observers,  containing  burnt  bones.  The 
cremation  had  been  so  complete  that  only  one  of  the 
pieces  of  bone  could  be  determined — a  human  tooth. 
After  cremation,  the  remains  of  the  bones  and  the  ashes 
had  been  collected  in  an  excavation  and  covered  first 
with  turf  and  twigs  and  then  with  small,  flat  stones.  It 
appears,  by  the  observations  of  the  navigators,  that  the 
Chukches  sometimes  burned  their  dead  and  sometimes 
exposed  them  to  beasts  of  prey,  with  weapons,  sledges, 
household  articles  and  clothing.  At  Port  Clarence,  south 
of  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  North  America,  two  Eskimo 
graves  were  noticed.  The  corpses  had  been  laid  on  the 
ground  fully  clothed,  without  coffins,  but  surrounded  by 
a  close  fence  made  of  tent  poles  driven  crosswise  in  the 
ground.  Alongside  of  one  of  the  corpses  lay  a  kayak  with 
oars,  a  loaded  double-barreled  gun,  with  locks  at  half 
cock  and  caps  on,  various  other  weapons,  clothes,  tinder 
box,  snow  shoes,  drinking  vessels,  masks  carved  in  wood 
and  strangely- shaped  animal  heads,  the  latter  such  as 
were  also  seen  in  the  tents  of  the  living. 

INTERMENT   AMONG    THE   EARLY   CHRISTIANS. 

The  new  testament  furnishes  many  passages  to  show 
that  the  Jews  buried  without  their  cities.  The  sepulchre 
in  which  the  body  of  our  Saviour  was  laid  was  in  the 


42  CHRISTIAN   BURIAL. 

place  where  He  was  crucified.  At  our  Lord's  passion  the 
graves  were  opened  and  many  bodies  of  the  saints  which 
slept  arose,  and  came  out  of  their  graves  after  His  resur- 
rection and  appeared  unto  many  in  the  holy  city.  The 
son  of  the  widow  of  Nain  was  being  carried  without  the 
city,  when  the  procession  was  met  by  Jesus.  The 
bodies  of  Ananias  and  Saphira  were  carried  away  for 
burial,  and  the  body  of  the  martyr,  Stephen,  who  was 
stoned  without  the  city,  was  buried  where  it  lay. 

The  interment  of  the  first  Christians  was  undistin- 
guished, and  was  like  that  of  the  common  people. 
After  they  became  a  distinct  class,  they  had  their  own 
peculiar  funeral  ceremonies,  which  partook  of  usages 
both  Jewish  and  Gentile,  but  uniformly  by  burial.  It 
was  not  long  before  the  persecutors  of  the  Christians 
under  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  carnage  under  Nero, 
greatly  increased  the  number  of  martyrs.  The  tenderest 
emotions  of  nature  and  the  impulses  of  their  religion  led 
them  to  provide  a  resting  place  for  the  slain,  to  protect 
their  bodies  from  the  rage  of  the  people.  They  were 
taken  charge  of,  and  with  secrecy  and  great  caution 
transported  under  cover  of  the  night  to  the  public  ceme- 
teries. The  catacombs  soon  became  the  repository  of 
their    remains,*  but    anticipating  the  evils  which    must 


*  The  word  catacomb  is  compounded  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies,  over 
against  a  hollow  deeply  excavated.  The  catacombs  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  cemeteries,  each  word  having  its  own  signification.  Mission,  a  traveler 
in  1687-8,  gives  his  opinion  that  no  place  in  the  world  can  compare  with  Rome 


CEMETERIES    IN    ROMAN  SUBURBS.  43 

necessarily  result  from  the  accumulation  of  so  many- 
bodies  in  the  place  where  they  were  accustomed  to  as- 
semble for  religious  worship,  they  were  abandoned. 

Large  tracts  of  land  in  the  suburbs  of  Rome,  given  by 
the  Patricians  and  some  pious,  wealthy  women,  were  ap- 
propriated to  purposes  of  burial.  These  were  the  origin 
of  cemeteries  (place  of  repose).  More  than  forty  such 
burial  places  are  reckoned  to  have  been  opened  in  the 
suburbs  of  Rome.  Ecclesiastical  history  has  preserved 
their  names.  Here  were  erected  altars  and  chapels,  con- 
structed for  funeral  ceremonies.  The  latter  were  also 
used  for  religious  worship.  The  cemeteries  were  cared 
for  with  the  greatest  attention,  and  all  became  the  sites  of 
consecrated  temples.  This  gave  origin  to  the  Basilics, 
which  became  the  principal  churches,  on  which  the  others 
depended  and  of  which  they  formed  a  part.* 

In  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables,  enacted  by  the  Decem- 
viri (A.  D.  about  200),  burial  or  burning  of  the  dead 
within  the  city  was  forbidden.      The  statute  was  in  force 


for  subterranean  passages  known  as  catacombs.  They  are  not  single  vaults  but 
whole  cities  of  the  dead,  with  turnings  aud  windings,  like  streets  dug  out  from 
the  rock.  Each  passage  is  commonly  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  wide,  and 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high.  The  graves  are  hollow  niches,  one  above  another  in 
rows,  where  the  dead  are  deposited  without  coffins.  These  catacombs  to  the 
number  of  forty  and  more,  running  in  all  directions  for  unnumbered  miles  under 
the  Roman  Campagna,  chiefly  along  the  Appian  Way,  are  witnesses  of  the  faith 
and  practice  of  early  Christianity,  as  positive,  as  are  the  monuments  of  Egypt 
and  Babylonia  of  Pagan  beliefs  and  modes  of  life  and  worship.  They  assure  us 
of  their  one  design  and  purpose  oi  bicrial,  not  cremation,  which  the  Christians 
abhorred  as  Pagan. — Monumental  Christianity. 

*  The  Christians  began  to  build  churches  in  the  second  century.  Their 
sites  have  been  determined.  The  church  of  Antioch  was  erected  in  the  third 
century.     Destroyed  by  Diocletian. 


44  BEGINNING   OF  INTRA-MURAL  BURIAL. 

for  a  long  period.     The  admission  of  the  remains  of  even 
holy  personages  was  positively  forbidden. 

The  Christian  church  in  three  centuries  rested  in  com- 
parative quiet,  and  finally  perfect  peace,  by  the  conversion 
of  Constantine,  and  by  his  memorable  edict  of  toleration, 
in  A.  D.  313.  The  Pagan  temples  of  idols  ceased  to  be 
resorted  to  and  were  transferred  to  the  worship  of  God. 
The  altars  at  which  the  Christians  worshipped  in  the  cata- 
combs and  cemeteries  in  the  suburbs,  were  transferred  to 
the  cities,  and  the  relics  of  the  martyrs  took  the  places  of 
the  Pagan  deities.  Now  it  was,  that  a  general  desire  was 
manifest  for  providing  tombs  within  their  cities.  A  wish 
to  be  buried  near  the  temples  of  their  worship  is  a  natural 
one.  They  thought,  too,  that  proximity  to  the  places 
where  the  prayers  of  the  holy  were  offered,  would  bene- 
fit the  souls  of  the  departed  dead,  and  that  the  emana- 
tions from  the  bodies  of  the  saints  would  warm  the 
hearts  of  the  faithful  and  encourage  them  in  pious  works. 

Burials  within  or  near  a  church  had  their  origin  in  the 
request  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  to  be  buried  in  the 
vestibule  of  the  Basilica  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  which  he 
himself  had  built.  His  wish  was  granted  as  a  mark  of 
the  highest  honor.  The  successors  of  Constantine  ob- 
tained a  like  distinciion.  Benefactors  to  the  church 
received  the  same.  The  priesthood,  by  their  sanctity  and 
rank,  were  deemed  worthy  of  the  high  privilege.  The 
revolution    thus  begun    was    neither   general   nor  rapid. 


BURIAL  IN   CHURCHES.  45 

The  bishops  who  granted  the  privileges  adopted  each  his 
own  regulations,  which  were  stringent  or  otherwise,  accord- 
ing to  his  views.  In  half  a  century  interments  within 
the  city  of  Constantinople  and  other  Roman  cities  became 
general,*  for  in  A.  D,  381,  Theodosius  renewed  the  edicts 
of  his  predecessors  and  prohibited  interments  in  cities. 
He  ordained  that  the  bodies,  urns,  and  sarcophagi  within 
the  walls  of  Rome  should  be  removed  to  a  distance.  His 
design  was  to  prevent  infection  of  the  air.  Van  Espen 
says  :  ''Inipcratores  Cliristiani  sanctitateni  civitatum  violari 
credebant  per  corpora  mortuorum  quod  nimio  siio  f(ztore 
civitates  infccerunt.''  "The  Christian  Emperors  always 
censured  the  burial  of  the  dead  in  cities  ;  they  feared 
contagion."  Seneca  says :  "■  Non  defunctorum  causa,  sed 
vivorum  invent  a  est  sepultura,  2it  corpora  et  visu  et  adore 
fceda  amoverenter. 

The  edict  was  observed  for  a  considerable  time,  but  it 
came  to  be  disregarded  long  before  Gregory  the  Great, 
by  whom  it  was  restored  in  Italy.  "  Whatever  difference 
there  might  have  been  in  the  opinion  between  the  Pagans 
and  Christians  as  to  the  fate  which  awaits  us  after  our 
mortal  career,  whatever  variety  the  principles  laid  down 
in  the  Christian  church,  we  always  see  the  most  enlight- 
ened princes  maintaining,  by  their  laws  in  relation  to 
interments,  those  rules  which  were  most  in  conformity 
with  the  real  good  of  the  community.     The  ancient  cccle- 


*  The   abuse  of  interring   was  carried   so   far  that  as  to  permit  Pagans  and 
Christians,  the  impious  and  holy,  to  be  interred  in  the  interior  of  their  temples. 


46  BURtAL    IN    CHURCHES    OPPOSED. 

siastical  constitutions,  the  letters  of  the  Pontiffs,  that 
sacred  tradition  which  they  are  bound  to  preserve,  all 
concurred  in  delivering  cities  from  the  infection  of  dead 
bodies;  but  this  abuse,  far  from  being  destroyed,  gained 
new  strength.  The  innumerable  causes  for  not  looking 
upon  the  bodies  of  the  dead  with  disgust,  the  flattering 
hopes  they  entertained  of  participating  in  the  merits  of 
the  just,  by  partaking  of  their  graves,  the  distinction 
which  resulted  in  favor  of  those  who  had  been  deemed 
worthy  of  that  honor,  awakened  among  some  sentiments 
of  piety,  excited  among  others  the  feelings  of  self-love. 
At  length  tyrannical  custom  overcame  the  law.  The 
prerogative  which  was  reserved  for  Emperors  was  at  last 
the  inheritance  of  the  lowest  class  of  citizens,  and  that 
which  was  at  first  a  particular  privilege  became  at  length 
the  common  right  of  all." 

Prior  to  and  during  the  sixth  century  interments  in 
cities  were  greatly  increased.  Synods  and  councils  be- 
came earnest  in  their  efforts  to  arrest  the  evil  and  to  re- 
store the  ancient  discipline  of  the  church.  The  Council 
of  Bracar  contained  a  celebrated  canon  which  forbade  in- 
terment in  churches,  and  proved  also  that  cities  have  the 
right  to  prohibit  any  person  from  burying  within  its  walls. 
Charlemagne,  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  gave  his 
earnest  attention  to  ecclesiastical  discipline.  lie  held 
frequent  councils  in  different  parts  of  his  kingdom,  the 
decisions  of  which  were  formulated  into  his  noted  capitu- 
laries.    One   of  his   bishops,    Theodolphus,  complained 


PROHIBITION    BY  CHARLEMAGNE.  47 

that  the  churches  in  France  had  become  almost  burial 
places.  The  capitularies  of  Charlemagne  forbade  interments 
of  the  laity  within  the  churches,  and  subsequently  that  of 
all  persons,  without  discrimination.  He  ordered  the 
tombs  to  be  destroyed,  and  wished  for  the  future  that 
they  should  never  be  raised  above  the  level  of  the  ground. 
Notwithstanding  the  measures  enforced  by  Charlemagne, 
they  were  modified  by  subsequent  councils,  though  the 
church  desired  that  the  prohibition  should  be  obeyed.  It 
fell  into  such  a  degree  of  neglect  that  the  Emperor  Leo,  in 
the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  in  codifying  and  publishing 
the  canons  of  the  church,  erased  in  one  of  his  statutes  the 
old  prohibition  of  burying  in  churches.  The  terms  of  his 
decree  show  that  the  old  law  had  fallen  into  complete  dis- 
credit, and  had  become  a  dead  letter.  He  gives  two  rea- 
sons for  its  falling  into  disuse.  The  first  was  the  distress 
of  the  people  to  see  the  bodies  of  their  relatives  carried  so 
far  from  them  ;  and  the  second  was  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation or  great  vexation  of  the  poor. 

Notwithstanding  the  decree  of  Leo,  "  it  is  equally  cer- 
tain that  the  church,  always  animated  by  the  same  princi- 
ple, did  not  cease  to  enforce  as  much  as  possible  the 
ancient  usages.  The  councils,  held  from  the  tenth 
even  to  the  eighteenth  century,  in  various  parts  of  the 
catholic  world,  bear  evident  testimony  to  that  effect."* 


*  The  following  French  bishops  and  archbishops  have  at  the  affixed 
dates  promulgated  in  their  sees  ordinances  against  interments  in  towns  or  in 
churches  : — Bishop  of  Avrauches,  A.  D.  1600  ;  Bishop  of  St.  Malo,  1620  ;  Bishop 
of  Lizieux,    1650 ;    Bishop  of  La  Rochelle,    1655 ;    Bishop  of  Chalons,   1661 ; 


48        ANIMAL  CORRUPTION  DANGEROUS. 

From  the  beginning  of  history  to  the  ninth  century  of 
the  Christian  era,  it  is  manifest  that  however  interments 
were  modified  by  forms  of  reh'gions  or  superstition,  it 
was  a  universally  accepted  fact  that  exposure  of  the 
living  to  the  corruption  which  succeeds  the  death  of  the 
body  is  injurious  to  the  living,  and  becomes  a  source  of 
disease  and  pestilence  in  crowded  communities.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  intramural  interments  should  have 
been  allowed  by  the  church  and  the  State  just  when  a 
knowledge  of  nature's  laws  began  to  be  increased.  The 
old  nations  of  the  world  were,  in  their  generations,  wiser 
in  their  measures  of  protection  than  those  of  the  new. 

There  is  a  popular  belief  that,  as  the  wise  Creator  has 
ordained  that  we  must  die,  and  has  taught  us  that  the 
dead  must  be  buried.  He  has  so  ordered  that  no  evil 
results  shall  follow  their  burial.  Such  an  argument 
proves  too  much.  We  know  that  pestilential  influences 
arise  from  various  other  causes,  and  we  provide  against 
them.  Death  is  a  consequence  of  our  fallen  nature  ;  dis 
ease  and  pestilence  are  recognized  evils.  Whatever  is 
believed  to  produce  them  must,  if  possible,  be  removed. 
That  this  is  eminently  true  of  the  emanations  from  the 
putrefaction   of  decaying  dead   bodies,  and  especially  so 


Bishop  of  Amiens,  1662 ;  Bishop  of  Orleans,  1664;  Bishop  of  Aleth,  1670;  Bish- 
op of  Cohors,  1673  ;  Bishop  of  Senez,  1672-78  ;  Bishop  of  Grenoble,  1690 ;  Bishop 
of  Noyon,  1691 ;  Bishop  of  Soissons,  1700;  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  1721,  and  in 
the  same  year  the  Bishop  of  Evreux  and  the  Archbishop  of  Auch. 

In  about  1765  the  Archbishop  of  Toulouse  promulgated  an  ordinance  concern- 
ing interments  in  churches,  contained  in  fifteen  articles.  They  were  confirmed 
in  toto  by  the  Parliaments  in  France,  and  sanctioned  by  the  King. 


ANIMAL   PUTRESCENCE.  49 

when  in  crowded  cemeteries,  cannot  for  one  moment  be 
reasonably  questioned.  The  God  of  the  Israelites  per- 
mitted the  laws  of  nature  to  operate  as  He  had  ordained 
them,  but  carefully  protected  his  chosen  people  by 
statutes  which  guarded  their  health  and  banished  from 
their  dwellings  and  communities  the  causes  of  disease 
and  pestilence. 

The  testimony  of  early  scripture  history  admits  the 
belief  that  uniformity  of  burial  in  sepulchres  and  in  the 
earth  among  all  nations  after  the  deluge,  had  its  origin  in 
the  mortuary  customs  of  the  old  world.  It  is  recorded 
of  the  three  sons  of  Noah— (Gen.  x)  "  by  these  were  the 
nations  divided  in  the  earth  after  the  flood."  We  cannot 
doubt  that  the  customs  in  which  they  had  lived  a  hundred 
years  before  the  deluge  were  carried  with  them  and 
became  the  traditions  of  the  new  world. 

ANIMAL   PUTRESCENCE. 

The  facts  which  history  so  abundantly  furnishes  of  the 
malignancy  of  animal  putrescence  are  known  compara- 
tively to  the  few.  They  should  be  known  and  read  of 
all  men. 

Doctor    Haguenot,     Professor    of    the    University   of 

Montpelier,  France,  was  one  of  the  earliest  writers  upon 

the  dangers  of  interments  in  the  city  of  his  residence. 

Though  long  convinced  of  them,  he  delayed  pointing  them 

out    till   an    event  occurred   under  his  own  observation, 

which  led  him  to  raise  his  voice  of  warning  and  remon- 
7 


50  EMANATIONS    FROM   A   VAULT. 

strance  for  the  protection  of  the  people  against  the  reign- 
ing abuse.  On  the  seventeenth  of  August,  1744,  toward 
evening,  the  body  of  a  layman  was  conveyed  to  a  vault 
in  the  parish  of  Notre  Dame  of  Montpelier,  attended  by 
a  numerous  procession  of  the  clergy  and  laity.  No  less 
than  three  men  perished  on  this  occasion  ;  a  fourth  was 
with  difficulty  recovered  from  a  state  of  asphyxia,  and  a 
fifth  was  attacked  with  severe  and  alarming  symptoms, 
which  left  him  for  a  long  while  pale  and  feeble,  and  his 
recovery  was  very  properly  termed  a  resurrection.  The 
catastrophe  occurred  as  follows :  While  lowering  the 
corpse,  a  man  first  went  down  to  support  the  coflfin,  and 
fell  senseless;  another  followed  to  assist  him,  and  though 
drawn  out  in  time  was  afflicted  with  the  severe  illness 
just  noted ;  the  third,  who  had  the  courage  to  offer  his 
services,  descended  with  a  rope  around  his  waist,  and  had 
he  not  been  drawn  up  immediately,  would  have  died  ;  the 
fourth,  a  strong  and  vigorous  man,  trusting  to  his  robust 
constitution,  and  only  barkening  to  the  call  of  humanity, 
dared  the  danger,  and  died  upon  entering  the  vault ;  the 
fifth  came  out  once  to  recover  strength,  returned  a  second 
time,  staggered  from  the  ladder,  and  fell  dead.  The 
bodies  were  drawn  up  by  hooks.  Haguenot  was  author- 
itatively commissioned  to  investigate  the  conditions 
attendant  upon  this  tragical  event.  He  had  the  vault 
reopened  and  upon  an  examination  he  recorded  the  fol- 
lowing experiments.  The  cadaverous  fcEtor  exhaled  was 
so  intense  as  to  adhere  for  a  long  time  to  any  substance 


GERMS   OF   DISEASE   IN   VAULTS.  5 1 

which  was  exposed  for  a  few  moments  in  the  vault. 
Lighted  tapers,  chips,  papers  and  tarred  ropes,  when 
brought  to  the  edge  of  the  vault  were  instantly  extin- 
guished. Animals — dogs  and  cats— became  instantly- 
convulsed,  and  died  in  a  few  minutes;  birds  lived  a  few 
seconds.  The  vapor  or  gas  was  obtained  and  preserved 
in  glass  vessels.  After  six  weeks  it  possessed  the  same 
qualities  and  produced  the  same  effects."^ 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  church  now  noticed,  Ha- 
guenot  says  that  the  small  pox  broke  out  and  raged  with 
great  violence,  and  remarks  that  the  more  gradual  or 
weaker  evolution  of  thin  vapor  fills  the  air  with  malign 
qualities,  the  germs  of  fatal  or  epidemic  diseases,  or  they 
aggravate  the  symptoms  of  those  prevailing. f 

"  Every  one  knows,"  says  Vicq.  Dazyr,  "that  animal 
exhalations,  particularly  from  a  putrefying  carcass,  are 
very  noxious  and  dangerous."  Diodorus  Siculus  (lOO  B. 
C.)  notes  pestilential  diseases  produced  by  the  putrefac- 
tion of  different  substances.  Saint  Augustine  makes 
mention  of  animals  cast  upon  the  seashore,  whose  putre- 


*  The  investigations  were  in  accordance  with  the  infancy  of  chemical  science, 
140  years  ago,  and  would  now  be  considered  defective  and  insufficient. 

t  The  same  writer  gives  a  key  to  the  explanation  of  miracles  at  the  tombs  of 
saints,  as  being  natural  causes  in  operation  in  sepulchral  chambers.  Gregory  of 
Tours  relates  that  a  thief  for  the  sake  of  plunder  entered  the  tomb  of  St.  Helius. 
The  holy  prelate  miraculously  detained  him  and  he  died.  A  poor  man,  who 
wished  to  cover  the  grave  of  his  son  with  a  stone,  attempted  to  steal  one  from  the 
tomb  of  a  holy  personage,  and  was  instantly  struck  blind,  deaf  and  dumb.  Jo- 
sephus  in  his  antiquities  says  that  the  servants  of  King  Herod  who  broke  open 
the  tomb  of  King  David,  were  killed  in  the  very  act.  These  occurrences,  he 
says,  may  be  attributed  to  the  poisonous  vapors  of  the  grave. 


52  PESTILENCE  FROM   PUTREFACTION. 

fying  bodies  created  a  widely  extended  pestilence.  The 
waters  of  the  Nile,  as  they  return  from  the  fields  they 
have  inundated,  leave  a  multitude  of  aquatic  insects, 
which,  putrefying,  exhale  miasm.  Egypt  is  thus  exposed 
almost  every  year  to  malignant  fevers.  It  is  from  that 
country  that  the  small  pox  is  scattered  throughout  the 
world.  The  putrefaction  of  grasshoppers  in  Ethiopia  has 
caused  epidemic  diseases. 

Lucian  notes  an  epidemic  which  ravaged  the  army  of 
Pompey,  occasioned  by  the  putrefaction  of  the  horses  killed 
and  left  on  the  field  of  battle.  A  great  mortality  oc- 
curred in  the  camp  of  Constantine  the  Great  from  similar 
causes.  Carcases  scattered  over  the  field  of  battle  have 
in  all  times  caused  mortal  sickness.  Aristotle  advised 
Alexander  to  return  immediately  after  the  defeat  of  Da- 
rius, to  avoid  the  malignant  influence  of  the  dead  bodies. 
Long  sieges,  where  many  lives  are  lost,  are  commonly 
attended  with  fevers  and  fatal  distempers.  The  war  of 
the  Swedes  in  the  last  century  was  the  occasion  of  a  pes- 
tilence which  desolated  Poland. 

Some  subterranean  vaults  at  Paris,  under  the  church  of 
St.  Eustace,  were  dug  out,  and  some  dead  bodies  were 
of  necessity  removed.  They  were  put  in  a  vault,  for  a 
long  time  shut  up.  Children  who  went  there  to  cate- 
chism sickened.  The  same  effect  was  produced  in  adults. 
Doctor  Ferret,  who  made  a  report  upon  the  subject,  said 
that  he  found  that  the  respiration  of  the  sick  was  diffi- 
cult ;  that  the  brain  was  disordered ;    they  had  violent 


PUTREFACTION   PESTILENTIAL.  53 

palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  many  were  affected  with 
convulsive  motions  in  the  arms  and  legs. 

A  lot  of  ground  which  had,  in  past  times,  a  convent 
for  the  nuns  of  St.  Genevieve,  at  Paris,  was  appropriated 
to  the  erection  upon  it  of  shops.  All  those  who  in- 
habited the  ground  floor,  and  particularly  the  young, 
were  affected  with  similar  complaints,  which  were,  with 
good  reason,  attributed  to  exhalations  from  the  dead 
bodies  interred  beneath. 

An  attentive  physician,  in  making  researches  into  the 
causes  of  the  epidemic  in  Saulier,  and  carefully  studying 
the  sources  and  consequences  of  the  facts,  has  shown 
that  the  contagion  proceeded  from  a  number  of  dead 
bodies  buried  in  the  parish  of  St.  Saturnine.  The  cathe- 
dral of  Montpelier  was  infected  by  the  same  causes. 

Vicq.  Dazyr  says,  in  regard  to  these  facts :  "  Were  we 
to  collect  together  all  the  observations  of  those  who  have 
gone  before  us,  we  should  find  proofs  without  number  of 
what  we  advance  ;  the  small  number  of  the  learned  and 
of  persons  capable  of  transmitting  to  posterity,  accounts 
of  the  deadly  effects  of  interments  in  churches  and  in 
towns — or  rather  the  sanctity  with  which  we  ourselves 
have  been  used  to  consider  the  custom  of  interring  in 
temples — has  been  often  the  reason  of  attributing  to 
other  causes  the  epidemic  diseases  which  have,  from  time 
to  time,  depopulated  our  cities." 

In  Walker  on  Grave-yards  (London,  1839),  '^^^  read, 
'p.  96 :  "A  mild  catarrhal  fever  prevailed  in  Saulieu,  Bur- 


54  PUTREFACTION   PESTILENTIAL. 

gundy.  The  body  of  a  very  fat  man  was  buried  in  the 
parish  church  of  St.  Saturnine.  Twenty-three  days  after- 
wards a  grave  was  opened  by  the  side  of  the  former,  to 
bury  a  woman  who  had  died  of  the  same  disease.  A 
very  fetid  odor  filled  the  church  and  affected  all  those 
who  entered.  In  letting  down  the  body  the  rope  slipped, 
by  which  the  coffin  was  shaken.  A  discharge  of  sanies 
followed,  the  odor  of  which  greatly  annoyed  the  assist- 
ants. Of  one  hundred  and  seventy  persons  who 
entered  the  church  from  the  opening  of  the  grave  to  the 
interment,  one  hundred  and  forty-nine  were  attacked 
with  a  malignant  putrid  fever,  which  had  some  resem- 
blance to  the  reigning  catarrhal  fever  ;  but  the  nature 
and  intensity  of  the  symptoms  left  no  doubt  that  the 
malignity  was  owing  to  the  infection  of  the  cathedral." 

Dodsley's  Annual  Register,  July,  1773,  gives  the  par- 
ticulars of  an  accident  which  occurred  in  the  same 
church  :  "  Of  one  hundred  and  twenty  young  persons  of 
both  sexes  who  were  assembled  to  receive  their  first  com- 
munion, all  but  six  fell  dangerously  ill,  together  with  the 
Cure,  the  grave  diggers  and  sixty-six  other  persons.  The 
illness  with  which  they  were  seized  is  described  as  a 
putrid,  verminous  fever,  accompanied  with  hemorrhagic 
eruption  and  inflammation." 

M.  Maret,  in  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  the  Journal 
Encyclopediqiie,  in  1775.  states  that  the  curate  of  Arnay- 
le-duc,  after  having  breathed  the  infected  air  arising  from 
a  dead  body  of  one  of  his  parishioners  when  he  was  per- 


FATALITY  FROM   ONE    CORPSE.  55 

forming  the  funeral  rites,  contracted  a  putrid  disease 
which  had  reduced  him  to  the  last  extremity. 

MALIGNANT    DISEASE    FROM    ONE   CORPSE. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Render,  in  his  "Tour  through  Germany," 
published  in  London,  1801,  mentions  the  following  case  : 
"  In  the  month  of  July,  17—,  a  very  corpulent  lady  died 

at .     Before  her  death  she  begged,  as  a  particular 

favor,  to  be  buried  in  the  parochial  church,  and  on  the 
following  Saturday  was  buried  according  to  her  desire. 
The  day  following  the  clergyman  preached  her  funeral 
sermon.  The  weather  was  uncommonly  hot  and  sultry, 
and  a  great  drouth  was  prevailing.  The  succeeding  Sun- 
day the  Protestant  clergyman  had  a  very  full  congregation 
of  upwards  of  nine  hundred  persons,  it  being  the  day  for 
administering  the  holy  sacrament.  The  weather  con- 
tinuing very  hot,  many  were  obliged  during  the  service 
to  walk  out  for  a  time  to  avoid  fainting,  while  some 
actually  fainted  away. 

"  It  is  the  custom  in  Germany  that  when  the  people 
wish  to  receive  the  sacrament  they  neither  eat  nor  drink 
that  day  till  the  ceremony  is  entirely  over.  The  sermon 
occupied  one  hour  and  a  quarter,  after  which  the  bread 
was  consecrated  and,  according  to  custom,  remained 
uncovered  during  the  ceremony.  There  were  about  one 
hundred  and  eighty  communicants.  Before  they  had 
quitted  the  church,  more  than  sixty  of  them  were  taken 
ill.     Several  died  in  the  most  severe  agonies  ;  others,  of 


56  INSECTS   GENERATED   BY   PUTREFACTION. 

a  more  vigorous  constitution,  survived  by  the  help  of 
medical  assistance.  A  most  violent  consternation  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  whole  congregation  and  town.  It 
was  concluded  that  the  wine  had  been  poisoned,  and  so 
it  was  generally  believed.  The  sacristan  and  several 
others  belonging  to  the  vestry  were  immediately  arrested 
and  cast  into  prison.  The  clergyman,  on  the  succeeding 
Sunday,  preached  very  excitedly  and  pointed  out  several 
others  concerned  in  the  plot.  This  enthusiastic  sermon 
was  printed.  The  persons  accused  underwent  very  great 
hardships.  During  the  space  of  a  week  they  were  con- 
fined in  a  dungeon,  and  some  of  them  put  to  the  torture, 
but  they  persisted  in  asserting  their  innocence. 

"  On  the  Sunday  following,  the  magistrate  ordered  that 
a  chalice  of  wine,  uncovered,  should  be  placed  for  the 
space  of  an  hour  upon  the  altar,  which  time  had  scarcely 
elapsed  when  they  beheld  the  wine  filled  with  myriads  of 
insects  ;  and,  by  tracing  them  to  their  source,  it  was  at 
length  perceived,  by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  that  they  had 
issued  from  the  grave  of  the  lady  who  had  been  buried 
the  preceding  fortnight.  The  people  not  belonging  to 
the  vestry  were  dismissed,  and  four  men  employed  to 
open  the  grave  and  the  coffin.  In  doing  this,  two  of 
them  dropped  down  and  expired  upon  the  spot,  and  the 
other  two  were  only  saved  by  the  utmost  exertion  of 
medical  talent.  It  is  beyond  the  power  of  words  to 
describe  the  horrid  sight  of  the  corpse  when  the  coffin 
was  opened.     The  whole  was  a  mass  of  entire  putrefac- 


SOIL   OF   A   GRAVEYARD   DISTURBED.  5/ 

tion,  and  it  was  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  numerous 
insects,  both  large  and  small,  together  with  the  effluvia 
which  had  issued  from  the  body,  had  caused  the  pestilen- 
tial infection  which  was  for  a  while  attributed  to  poison." 
Bascont. 

SATURATED   SOIL   OF   A   GRAVEYARD   DISTURBED. 

In  the  autumn  of  1843,  i^i  Minchinhampton,  a  grave- 
yard was  disturbed  which  had  existed  five  hundred 
years.  In  rebuilding  the  church  it  was  deemed  expedient 
to  lower  the  surface  of  the  graveyard  to  within  a  foot  or 
two  of  those  buried.  The  earth  so  removed,  of  a  dark  color 
— saturated,  in  fact,  with  the  product  of  human  putrefac- 
tion—was, in  a  fatal  hour,  devoted  to  the  purposes  of 
agriculture.  About  one  thousand  cart-loads  were  so 
employed,  some  on  a  new  piece  of  burial  ground  to  make 
the  grass  grow  quickly,  some  as  manure  in  the  neighbor- 
ing fields,  some  on  the  rector's  garden,  and  some  in  that 
of  the  patron.  The  seeds  of  disease  were  thus  widely 
sown,  and  the  result  was  such  as  any  person  of  common 
sense  might  have  expected.  The  diffusion  of  a  morbid 
poison  which  soon  followed  was  evinced  by  an  outbreak 
of  fever  in  this  once  healthy  locality.  The  family  of  the 
rector  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  streets  adjoining  the 
churchyard  were  the  first  attacked,  and  were  also  the 
greatest  sufferers.  The  rector  lost  his  wife,  a  daughter 
and  his  gardener.  The  patron's  gardener,  who  had  been 
employed   in   the   unseemly  art  of  dressing  flower  beds 


58  GRAVEYARDS  IN  CITIES. 

with  human  manure,  also  died.  The  children  who 
attended  the  school  took  the  fever  as  they  passed  the 
upturned  surface  of  the  graveyard,  went  home  and  died, 
but  did  not  communicate  the  disease  to  those  who  came 
near  them.  Seventeen  deaths  occurred,  and  upwards  of 
two  hundred  children  had  measles,  scarlet  fever  and 
various  peculiar  eruptions.     Bascom. 

This  grave-yard  had  been  in  use  200  years  when  Bishop 
Latimer  (1552)  warned  the  people  that  intramural  burials 
were  dangerous  to  health.  In  a  sermon  on  the  raising  of 
the  widow's  son,  he  says :  "  These  citizens  of  Naim  hadd 
their  buryinge  place  withoute  the  citie,  which  no  doubt 
is  a  laudable  thinge,  and  I  doe  much  marvel  that  London 
being  soe  rich  a  citie,  hath  not  a  buryinge  place  withoute, 
for  no  doubt  it  is  an  unwholesom  thinge  to  bury  within  the 
citie,  especiallie  at  such  a  time,  when  there  be  great  sick- 
nesses, and  manie  die  together.  *  *  *  And  I  think  no 
lesse  but  it  is  the  occasion  of  great  sicknesses  and  disease." 

Adam  Clarke  in  his  commentary  (1810-26)  on  the  same 
scripture  event,  advises  that  "  no  burying  place  should 
be  tolerated  within  cities  or  towns,  much  less  in  or  about 
churches  and  chapels.  This  custom  is  excessively  injuri- 
ous to  the  inhabitants,  and  especially  to  those  who  fre- 
quent public  worship  in  such  churches  and  chapels.  God, 
decency  and  health  forbid  this  shocking  abomination. 
*  *  *  I  am  assured  from  long  observation  that  churches 
and  chapels  situated  in  graveyards  *  *  *  are  perfectly 
unwholesome,  and  many  by  attending  such  places  are 


PESTILENCE   FROM   TOMBS.  59 

shortening  their  passage  to  the  house  appointed  for  all  the 
living.  What  increases  the  iniquity  of  this  abominable 
and  deadly  work  is,  that  burying  grounds  attached  to 
many  churches  and  chapels  are  made  a  source  of  private 
gain.  *  *  *  Every  man  should  know  that  the  gas 
disengaged  from  a  human  body  is  not  only  unfriendly  to, 
but  destructive  of,  animal  life." 

When  Hannibal  laid  seige  to  the  city  of  Agrigentum, 
in  the  south-western  part  of  Sicily,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  a  wall  without,  which  should  overlook  and  com- 
mand the  city  walls,  he  collected  all  the  materials  within 
his  reach,  and  among  the  rest  destroyed  and  converted  to 
his  use  the  tombs  standing  around  a  city  very  ancient  and 
populous,  and  then  containing  200,000  inhabitants.  From 
the  uncovering  and  disturbing  of  so  many  dead  bodies 
arose  a  terrible  pestilence,  which  carried  off  immense 
numbers  of  the  Carthagenians  and  the  General  himself. 
Afflicted  at  this  dreadful  mortality,  the  beseigers  attrib- 
uted it,  with  the  superstition  of  the  age,  to  the  vengeance 
of  the  gods,  incensed  against  them  for  violating  the 
repose  of  the  dead.  The  healthiness  of  the  situation, 
the  season,  and  the  thorough  appointment  and  supplies 
of  the  Carthagenian  army,  leave  no  room  to  doubt  as  to 
the  real  cause  of  the  sickness,  which  gradually  disap- 
peared. Two  remarks  of  some  importance  are  suggested 
by  the  historian. 

I.  The    folly    of  modern    nations,  especially  in   warm 


6o  chadwick's  report. 

climates,  in  suffering  the  interment  of  the  dead  within 
their  cities. 

2.  The  wisdom  of  some  ancient  nations  in  having  a 
dead  as  well  as  a  living  town. 

About  1843  ^  "report  on  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
laboring  population  of  Great  Britain — supplementary 
report  on  the  results  of  a  special  inquiry  into  the  practice 
of  interments  in  towns,"  was  made  by  Edwin  Chadwick, 
Esq.,  Barrister  at  Law,  at  the  request  of  Her  Majesty's 
principal  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department, 
It  was  presented  to  both  Houses  of  Parliament  by  com- 
mand of  Her  Majesty. 

The  materials  for  the  supplement  on  interments  were 
collected  from  every  source  where  useful  information  was 
likely  to  be  obtained — from  ministers  of  religion  called 
upon  to  perform  funeral  rites  in  the  poorer  districts,  from 
persons  of  the  laboring  class,  from  officers  of  benefit 
societies  and  burial  clubs,  from  undertakers  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  the  interment  of  the  dead  of  the  laboring  classes, 
from  foreigners  as  to  the  various  modes  of  interment  in 
their  own  countries,  and  the  administrative  regulations 
thereon,  and  finally  from  eminent  physiologists,  as  to  the 
effects  produced  on  the  health  of  the  living  by  emana- 
tions from  human  remains  in  a  state  of  decomposition. 
The  first  part  of  the  report  is  devoted  to  the  examina- 
tion of  the  evidence  for  and  against  the  conclusions  of 
medical  witnesses  of  high  professional  position,  by  whom 


PUTRID   EMANATIONS.  6l 

it  is  alleged  that  the  emanations  from  human  remains  in  a 
decomposing  state  do  not  produce  specific  disease,  and  that 
they  are  not  generally  injurious.  The  learned  writer  aims 
to  determine  the  question  of  the  healthiness  or  otherwise 
of  intra-mural  interments,  and  traces  the  distinct  effects 
produced  by  bodies  in  a  state  of  decay  and  putrefaction. 
Respecting  the  innocuousness  of  putrefaction,  the  report 
notices  the  testimony  of  M.  Parent  Duchatelet  and  Doc- 
tor Dunglison,  which  is  not  very  conclusive  in  its  nature, 
and  which  is  easily  set  aside.  The  latter  gentleman  says 
that  "  we  have  no  satisfactory  proof  that  malaria  ever 
arises  from  animal  putrefaction  singly,"  and  then  guards 
this  negative  proposition  by  the  following  admission. 

"  In  stating  the  opinion  that  putrefaction  singly  does  not  occasion 
malarial  disease,  we  do  not  mean  to  affirm  that  air  highly  charged 
with  putrid  miasmata  may  not,  in  some  cases,  powerfully  impress  the 
nervous  system  so  as  to  induce  syncope  and  high  nervous  disorder ;  or 
that  when  such  miasmata  are  absorbed  by  the  lungs  in  a  highly 
concentrated  state,  they  may  not  excite  putrid  disorders,  or  dispose 
the  frame  to  unhealthy  erysipelatous  affections.  On  the  contrary, 
experiment  seems  to  have  shown  that  they  are  deleterious  when  in- 
jected, and  cases  are  detailed  in  which,  when  exhaled  from  a  dead 
body,  they  have  excited  serious  mischief  in  those  exposed  to  their 
action." 

In  reference  to  Duchatelet's  statements,  when  he  cites 
instances  of  the  exhumation  of  bodies  in  an  advanced 
state    of    decomposition,   without   any   injurious    consc- 


62  PUTRID  EMANATIONS. 

quences  being  experienced  by  the  persons  engaged  in 
conducting  them,  the  accuracy  of  the  evidence  given 
is  very  quickly  disposed  of  in  a  "  Report  of  Doctor  V. 
A,  Riecke,  of  Stuttgart,  on  the  influence  of  putrefactive 
emanations  on  the  health  of  man,"  in  which  the  medical 
evidence  of  this  class  is  closely  investigated.  In  refer- 
ence to  the  statements  of  Duchatelet  on  this  question, 
Doctor  Riecke  observes : 


"  When  Parent  Duchatelet  appeals  to  and  gives  such  prominence 
to  the  instance  of  the  disinterments  from  the  churchyard  of  Saint 
Innocens,  and  states  that  they  took  place  without  any  injurious  con- 
sequences, although  at  last  all  precautions  in  the  mode  of  disinterring 
were  thrown  aside,  and  that  it  occurred  during  the  hottest  season  of 
the  year,  and  therefore  that  the  putrid  emanations  might  be  believed 
to  be  in  their  most  powerful  and  injurious  state,  I  would  reply  to  this 
by  asking  the  simple  question,  what  occasion  was  there  for  disinter- 
ment ?  Duchatelet  maintains  complete  silence  on  this  point ;  but  to 
me  the  following  notices  appear  worthy  of  attention.  In  the  year 
1554,  Houlier  and  Fernel,  and  in  the  year  1738  Lemery,  Geoffroy  and 
Hunaud  raised  many  complaints  of  this  churchyard ;  and  the  two 
first  had  asserted  that  during  the  plague  the  disease  had  lingered 
longer  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Cimeti^re  de  la  Trinit6,  and  that 
there  the  greatest  number  had  fallen  a  sacrifice.  In  the  years  1737 
and  1746,  the  inhabitants  of  the  houses  around  the  churchyard  of 
Saint  Innocens  complained  loudly  of  the  revolting  stench  to  which 
they  were  exposed.  In  the  year  1755  the  matter  again  came  into 
notice.  The  inspector  who  was  intrusted  with  the  inquiry,  himself 
saw  the  vapor  rising  from  a  large  common  grave,  and  convinced  him- 


PUTRID  EMANATIONS.  6$ 

self  of  the  injurious  effects  of  this  vapor  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the 
neighboring  house."  * 

"  Often,"  says  the  author,  "  the  complexions  of  the  young  people 
who  remain  in  the  neighborhood  grow  pale.  Meat  sooner  becomes 
putrid  there  than  elsewhere,  and  many  persons  cannot  get  accustomed 
to  these  houses."  In  the  year  1779,  in  a  cemetery  which  yearly 
received  from  2,000  to  3,000  corpses,  they  dug  an  immense  common 
grave  near  to  that  part  of  the  cemetery  which  touches  upon  the  Rue 
de  la  Lingerie.  The  grave  was  fifty  feet  deep,  and  made  to  receive 
from  1,500  to  1,600  bodies.  But,  in  Febuary,  1780,  the  whole  of  the 
cellars  in  the  street  were  no  longer  fit  for  use.  Candles  were  extin- 
guished by  the  air  in  them,  and  those  who  only  approached  the  aper- 
tures were  immediately  seized  with  the  most  alarming  attacks.  The 
evil  was  only  diminished  on  the  bodies  being  covered  with  half  a  foot 
of  lime  and  all  further  interments  forbidden.  But  even  that  must 
have  been  found  insufficient,  as,  after  some  j^ears,  the  great  work  of 
disinterring  the  bodies  from  this  churchyard  was  determined  upon. 
This  undertaking,  according  to  Thouret's  report,  was  carried  on  from 
December,  1785,  to  May,  1786;  from  December,  1786,  to  February-, 
1787,  and  in  August  and  October  of  the  same  year;  and  it  is  not 
unimportant  to  note  this,  as  it  shows  how  incorrect  is  Duchatelet  in 
his  general  statement  that  those  disinterments  were  carried  on  in  the 
hottest  seasons  of  the  year.  It  is  very  clear  that  it  was  exactly  the 
coldest  seasons  of  the  year  which  were  chosen  for  the  work  ;  and 
though  in  the  year  1787  there  occurs  the  exception  of  the  work  hav- 


*As  au  instance  of  the  state  of  the  cellars  around  the  graveyard,  it  is 
stated  that  a  workman,  being  engaged  in  one  of  them,  put  his  hand  on  the  wet 
wall.  He  was  warned  that  the  moisture  on  the  walls  was  poisonous,  and  was 
requested  to  wash  his  hand  in  vinegar.  He  merely  dried  his  hand  on  his  apron . 
At  the  end  of  three  days  the  whole  arm  became  numb,  then  the  hand  and  fore- 
arm swelled  with  great  pain,  blisters  came  out  on  the  skin,  and  the  epidermis 
came  off. 


64  PUTRID  EMANATIONS. 

ing  been  begun  in  August,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  weather  was 
unusually  cold,  and  it  was  therefore  thought  that  the  work  might  be 
carried  on  without  injurious  effects.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  to 
have  been  considered  safe  to  continue  the  work  at  that  season,  as  the 
operations  were  again  discontinued,  according  to  the  report,  in 
September. 

Against  those  statements  of  Duchatelet,  as  to  the  innocuousness  of 
the  frequent  disinterments  in  P6re  la  Chaise — statements  which  are 
supported  by  the  testimony  of  Orfila  and  Ollivier  in  regard  to  their 
experience  of  disinterments — I  would  here  state  positive  facts  which 
are  not  to  be  rejected.  '  I,'  also  remarks  Duvergie,  '  have  under- 
taken judicial  disinterments,  and  must  declare  that  during  one  of 
these,  at  which  M.  Piedagnel  was  present  with  me,  we  were  attacked 
with  an  illness,  although  it  was  conducted  under  the  shade  of  a  tent, 
through  which  there  was  passing  a  strong  current  of  wind  ;  and, 
although  we  used  chloride  of  lime  in  abundance,  Piedagnel  was  con- 
fined to  his  room  for  six  weeks.'  Apparently,  Duvergie  is  not  far 
wrong  when  he  states  his  opinion  that  Orfila  had  allowed  himself  to 
be  misled  by  his  praiseworthy  zeal  for  the  more  general  recognition  of 
the  use  of  disinterments  for  judicial  purposes,  to  understate  the  dan- 
gers attending  them,  as  doubtless  he  had  used  all  the  precautions 
during  the  disinterments  which  such  researches  demand  ;  and  to 
these  precautions  (recommended  by  Orfila  himself)  may  be  attributed 
their  few  injurious  effects.  I  cannot  refrain  from  giving,  also,  the 
information  which  Fourcroy  gained  from  the  grave-diggers  of  the 
churchyard  of  St.  Innocens.  Generally  they  did  not  seem  to  rate  the 
danger  of  displacing  the  corpses  very  high.  They  remarked,  how- 
ever, that  some  days  after  the  disinterment  the  abdomen  of  the  corpse 
would  swell,  through  the  great  development  of  gas,  and  that  if  an 
opening  forced  itself  at  the  navel  or  anywhere  in  the  region  of  the 
belly,  there  issued  forth  the  most  horribly-smelling  liquid  and  a 
mephitic  gas.     Of  the  last  they  had  the  greatest  fear,  as  it  produced 


EFFECTS   OF  AUTOPSIES.  65 

suddenly  insensibility  and  fainting.  Fourcroy  wished  much  to  make 
further  researches  into  the  nature  of  this  gas,  but  he  could  not  find 
any  grave-digger  who  could  be  induced  by  an  offered  reward  to  assist 
him  by  finding  a  body  which  was  in  a  fit  state  to  produce  this  gas. 
They  stated  tliat  at  a  certain  distance  this  gas  only  produced  a  slight 
giddiness— a  feeling  of  languor  and  debility.  These  attacks  lasted 
several  hours,  and  were  followed  by  loss  of  appetite,  weakness  and 
trembling.  "  Is  it  not  very  probable,"  says  Fourcroy,  "  that  a  poison 
so  terrible  that  when  in  a  concentrated  state  it  produced  sudden 
death,  should,  even  when  diluted  and  diffused  through  the  atmos- 
phere, still  possess  a  power  sufficient  to  produce  depression  of  the 
nervous  energy  and  an  entire  disorder  of  the  functions  ?  Let  anyone 
witness  the  terror  of  these  grave-diggers  and  also  see  the  cadaverous 
appearence  of  the  greatest  number,  and  all  the  other  signs  of  the 
influence  of  a  slow  poison,  and  they  will  no  longer  doabt  of  the  dan- 
gerous effects  of  the  air  from  churchyards  on  the  inmates  of  neigh- 
boring houses." 

Mr.  Chadwick  says  that  an  eminent  surgeon,  who 
expressed  to  him  his  beUef  that  no  injury  resulted  from 
emanations  from  decomposing  remains  because  /le  had 
suffered  none,  mentioned  an  instance  where  he  had  con- 
ducted the  f>os^  mortem  of  the  corpse  of  a  person  of 
celebrity  which  was  in  a  dreadful  state  of  decomposition, 
and  that  without  injury,  but  admitted,  as  a  casual  inci- 
dent, which  did  not  strike  him  as  militating  against  the 
conclusion,  that  his  assistant  was  immediately  after  taken 
ill  and  had  an  exanthematous  eruption. 

He  had  been  compelled  to  go  to  the  seaside,  and  had 
not  yet  recovered.      Another  surgeon  who  had  lived  for 


66  PUTRID   EMANATIONS. 

many  years  near  a  churchyard  in  the  metropolis,  and  had 
never  observed  any  effluvia  from  it,  neither  did  he  per- 
ceive any  effects  of  such  emanations,  at  church  or  any- 
where else,  yet  admitted  that  his  wife  perceived  the 
openings  of  vaults  when  she  went  to  the  church  to  which 
the  graveyard  belonged,  and  after  respiring  the  air  there, 
would  say,  "  they  have  opened  a  vault,"  which  upon  in- 
quiry would  prove  true.  He  admitted  also  that  formerly 
in  the  school  of  anatomy  which  he  attended,  pupils  were 
sometimes  attacked  with  fever,  which  was  called,  "  the 
dissecting-room  fever "  which,  since  better  regulations 
have  been  made,  is  now  unknown. 

The  fourth  paragraph  of  Chadwick's  report  notices  the 
evidence  of  another  class  to  prove  the  innocuousness  of 
the  emanations  of  human  remains  upon  the  general 
health,  to  wit,  the  instances  of  persons  acting  as  keepers 
of  dissecting  rooms  and  grave-diggers,  and  the  underta- 
kers' men  who,  it  is  stated,  have  pursued  their  occupa- 
tions for  long  periods  and  have  notwithstanding  main- 
tained robust  health. 

The  examination  of  persons  engaged  in  processes  ex- 
posed to  miasma  from  decomposing  animal  remains  in 
general,  only  shows  that  habit,  combined  with  associations 
of  profit,  often  prevents  or  blunts  the  perceptions  of  the 
most  offensive  remains.  Men  with  shrunken  figures  and 
the  appearance  of  premature  age,  and  a  peculiar  cadaver- 
ous aspect,  have  attended  as  witnesses  to  attest  their  own 


DISSECTINCJ-ROOM    EMANATIONS.  6/ 

perfectly  sound  conditions  as  evidence  of  the  salubrity 
of  their  particular  occupation.  Generally,  however,  men 
with  robust  figures  and  the  hue  of  health  are  singled  out 
and  presented  as  examples  of  the  general  innocuousness 
of  the  offensive  miasma  generated  in  the  process  in  which 
they  are  engaged. 

Professor  Owen  mentions  an  instance  of  a  witness  of 
this  class,  a  very  robust  man — the  keeper  of  a  dissecting 
room — who  appeared  to  be  in  florid  health  (which  proved 
to  be  not  as  sound  as  he  himself  conceived),  who  pro- 
fessed perfect  unconsciousness  of  having  sustained  any 
injury  from  the  occupation,  and  there  was  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  he  was  really  unconscious  of  having  sustained 
or  observed  any  ;  but  it  transpired  on  inquiry  that  he  had 
always  had  the  most  offensive  and  dangerous  work  done 
by  an  inferior  assistant,  and  that,  within  his  time,  he  had 
had  no  less  than  eight  assistants,  and  that  every  one  had 
died,  and  some  of  these  had  been  dissected  in  the  theatre 
where  they  had  served. 

The  sextons  of  graveyards,  who  are  robust  men, 
frequently  attest  to  their  salubrity ;  but,  upon  ex- 
amining their  inferiors,  the  grave-diggers,  it  appears 
when  there  is  much  to  do,  and  even  in  the  new  ceme- 
teries, that,  as  a  class,  they  are  unhealthy  and  cadaverous, 
and,  notwithstanding  precautions,  often  suffer  severely  on 
re  opening  graves,  and  that  their  lives  are  frequently  cut 
short  by  their  work.  There  are  very  florid  and  robust 
undertakers,  but,  as  a  class,  and  with  all  the  precautions 


6S  SEXTONS,   FELLMONGERS,   TANNERS. 

they  use,  they  are  unhealthy.  A  master  undertaker  of 
considerable  business  in  the  metropolis  says,  that  "  in 
nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  undertaker  who  has  much  to  do 
with  the  corpse  is  a  person  of  cadaverous  hue,  and  you 
may  almost  always  tell  him  whenever  you  see  him." 

Fellmongers,  tanners,  or  the  workmen  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  hides,  have  been  instanced  by  several 
medical  writers  as  a  class  who,  being  exposed  to  emana- 
tions from  the  skins  when  in  a  state  of  putrefaction, 
enjoy  good  health  ;  but  it  appears  that  all  the  workmen 
are  not  engaged  in  the  process  when  the  skins  are  in  that 
state,  and  that  those  of  them  who  are,  as  a  class,  do 
experience  the  common  consequences.  A  French  physi- 
cian, M.  Labarraque,  states  that,  notwithstanding  the 
constant  exposure  of  tanners  to  the  emanations  from 
putrid  fermentations,  it  has  not  been  remarked  of  the 
workmen  of  this  class  that  they  are  more  subject  to  ill- 
ness than  others.  A  tanner,  in  a  manual  written  for  the 
use  of  the  trade,  without  admitting  the  correctness  of  this 
statement,  observes :  "  Whatever  may  be  the  opinion  of 
M.  Labarraque  on  this  point,  we  do  not  hesitate  to 
declare  the  fact  that  this  species  of  labor  cannot  be  borne 
by  weakly,  scrofulous  or  lymphatic  subjects." 

Mr.  Barnctt,  surgeon,  one  of  the  medical  officers  of  the 
Stepney  Union,  who  has  observed  the  symptoms  in  those 
who  are  exposed  to  the  air  of  a  crowded  graveyard,  thus 
describes  them  : 


BURSTING  OF  COFFINS.  69 

"  They  are  characterized  by  more  or  less  disturbance  of  the  whole 
system,  with  evident  depression  of  the  vital  force,  as  evinced  through- 
out the  vascular  and  nervous  systems  by  the  feeble  action  of  the  heart 
and  arteries,  lowness  of  spirits,  etc.  These  maladies,  I  doubt  not,  if 
surrounded  by  other  causes,  would  terminate  in  fever  of  the  worst 
description.  Some  years  since,  a  vault  was  opened  in  the  churchyard 
(Stepney),  and  shortly  after,  one  of  the  coffins  contained  therein  burst 
with  so  loud  a  report  that  hundreds  flocked  to  the  place  to  ascertain 
the  cause.  So  intense  was  the  poisonous  nature  of  the  effluvia  arising 
therefrom,  that  a  great  number  were  attacked  with  sudden  sickness 
and  fainting,  many  of  whom  were,  for  a  considerable  time,  in  a  state 
of  ill-health. 

"  The  vaults  and  burial  ground  attached  to  Brunswick  Chapel, 
Limehouse,  are  much  crowded  with  dead ;  and  from  the  accounts  of 
individuals  residing  in  the  adjoining  houses,  it  would  appear  that  the 
stench  arising  therefrom,  particularly  when  a  grave  happens  to  be 
opened  during  the  summer  months,  is  most  noxious.  In  one  case  it 
is  described  to  have  produced  instant  nausea  and  vomiting,  and 
attacks  of  illness  are  frequently  imputed  to  it.  Some  say  they  have 
never  had  a  day's  good  health  since  they  have  resided  so  near  the 
Chapel  ground,  which,  it  may  be  remarked,  is  about  five  feet  above 
the  surrounding  yards  and  very  muddy — so  much  so,  that  pumps  are 
frequently  used  to  expel  the  water  from  the  vaults  into  the  streets." 


The  bursting  of  leaden  cofifins  in  the  vaults  of  ceme- 
teries, unless  they  are  watched  and  "  tapped  "  to  allow 
the  mephitic  vapor  to  escape,  are  not  infrequent.  In 
cases  of  rapid  decomposition,  such  instances  occur  in 
private  houses  before  the  entombment.  An  undertaker 
of  considerable  experience  states  : 


70  GRAVE    MIASM    INSTANTLY     FATAL. 

"  I  have  known  coffins  to  explode  like  the  report  of  a  small  g^n  in 
the  house.  I  was  once  called  up  at  midnight  by  the  people,  who  were 
in  great  alarm,  and  who  said  that  the  coffin  had  burst,  as  they 
described  it,  with  'a  report  like  the  report  of  a  cannon.'  On  proceed- 
ing to  the  house  I  found  in  that  case,  which  was  one  of  dropsy,  very 
rapid  decomposition  had  occurred,  and  the  lead  was  forced  up.  Two 
other  cases  have  come  under  my  notice  of  coffins  bursting  in  this 
manner.  I  have  heard  of  similar  cases  from  other  undertakers.  The 
bursting  of  lead  coffins  without  noise  is  more  frequent.  Of  course  it 
is  not  told  to  the  family  unless  they  have  heard  of  it,  as  they  would 
attribute  it  to  some  defective  construction  of  the  coffins." 

The  occurrence  of  instant  death  to  grave-diggers,  from 
accidentally  inhaling  the  concentrated  miasm  which 
escapes  from  coffins,  is  undeniable.  Slower  deaths  from 
such  exposure  are  designated  as  "  low  fevers,"  and 
whether  or  not  the  constitutional  disturbances  attendant 
be  or  be  not  true  typhus,  it  suf^ces,  as  a  case  requiring  a 
remedy,  that  the  exposure  to  such  an  influence  is  apt  to 
produce  grievous  and  fatal  injury  amongst  the  public. 

Doctor  Riecke  concludes,  from  the  various  cases  which 
are  given,  that  emanations  from  putrid  remains  operate 
in  two  ways ;  one  set  of  effects  are  produced  through  the 
lungs  by  impurity  of  the  air  from  the  mixture  of  irres- 
pirable  gases,  another  through  the  olfactory  nerves  by 
powerful,  penetrating,  offensive  smells.  The  evidence 
seems  to  establish  the  belief  that  offensive  smells  are  true 
warnings  of  sanitary  evils  to  the  population.  The  fact  of 
the  general  offensiveness  of  the  emanations  under  consid- 


ORGAN   OF   SMELL   A   SENTINEL.  7 1 

eration  is  adduced  by  Doctor  Riecke  as  evidence  of  their 
pernicious  quality.      He  thus  enforces  his  opinion  : 

"  It  certainly  cannot  be  far  from  the  truth  to  call  the  organ  of 
smell  the  truest  sentinel  of  the  human  frame.  '  Many  animals,' 
observes  Rudolphi,  '  are  entirely  dependent  on  their  sense  of  smell 
for  finding  out  food  that  is  not  injurious.  When  their  smell  is  injured 
they  are  easily  deceived,  and  have  often  fallen  a  sacrifice  to  the  con- 
sequent mistakes.'  Amongst  all  known  smells  there  is,  perhaps,  no 
one  which  is  so  universally  and  to  such  a  degree  revolting  to  man,  as 
the  smell  of  animal  decomposition.  The  roughest  savages  as  well  as 
the  most  civilized  European,  fly  with  equal  disgust  from  the  place 
where  the  air  is  infected  by  it.  If  an  instinct  can  ever  be  traced  in 
man,  certainly  it  is  in  the  present  case.  Is  instinct  a  superfluous 
monitor  exactly  in  this  one  instance  ?  Can  instinct  mislead  just  in 
this  one  circumstance  .'  Can  it  ever  be  that  the  air  which  fills  us  with 
the  greatest  disgust  is  the  finest  elixir  of  life,  as  Dumoulins  had  the 
boldness  to  maintain  in  one  of  his  official  reports  ?" 

Section  lo  of  the  report  treats  of  the  effects  of  the 
introduction  of  dead  animal  matter  into  living  tissues, 
and  its  capacity  to  produce  fatal  disease.  He  quotes  Doc- 
tor Southwood  Smith,  physician  to  the  London  Fever 
Hospital,  who  remarks  that, 

"  The  introduction  of  dead  animal  matter,  under  certain  conditions, 
into  the  living  body,  is  capable  of  producing  disease,  and  even  death, 
is  universally  known  and  admitted.  This  morbific  matter  may  be  the 
product  of  secretion  during  life,  or  of  decomposition  after  death. 
Familiar  instances  of  morbific  animal  matter,  the  result  of  secretion 
during  life,  are  the  poisons  of  smallpox  and  cowpox  ;  also  the  vitiated 


72  INOCULATION   OF  PUTRID  MATTER. 

fluids  formed  in  certain  acute  diseases,  such  as  acute  inflammations, 
and  particularly  those  of  the  membranes  lining  the  chest  and  abdo- 
men. On  examining  the  body  a  short  time  after  death  from  such 
inflammations,  the  fluids  are  so  extremely  acrid  that  even  when  the 
skin  is  entirely  sound  they  make  the  hands  of  the  examiner  smart,  and 
if  there  should  happen  to  be  the  slightest  scratch  on  the  finger,  or 
the  minutest  point  not  covered  by  cuticle,  violent  inflammation  is 
often  produced,  ending  sometimes  in  forty  eight  hours  in  death.  It 
is  reniarkable,  and  it  is  a  proof  that  in  these  cases  the  poison  absorbed 
is  not  putrid  matter ;  that  the  most  dangerous  period  for  the  exami- 
nation of  bodies  who  die  of  such  diseases,  is  from  four  to  five  hours 
after  death,  and  while  the  body  is  yet  warm. 

"  That  the  direct  introduction  into  the  system  of  decomposing  and 
putrescent  animal  matter  is  capable  of  producing  fevers  and  inflam- 
mations, is  proved  by  numerous  experiments  on  animals,  while  the 
instances  in  which  human  beings  are  seized  with  severe  and  fatal 
affections  from  the  application  of  the  fluids  of  a  dead  animal  body  to 
a  wounded,  punctured  or  abraded  surface  are  of  daily  occurrence."  * 

"  It  is  proved  by  indubitable  evidence  that  this  morbific  matter  is  as 
capable  of  entering  the  system  when  minute  particles  of  it  are  diffused 
in  the  atmosphere  as  when  it  is  directly  introduced  into  the  blood- 
vessels by  a  wound.  When  diffused  in  the  air,  these  noxious  particles 
are  conveyed  into  the  system  through  the  thin  and  delicate  walls  of  the 
air  vesicles  of  the  lungs  in  the  act  of  respiration.  The  mode  in  which 
the  air  vesicles  are  formed  and  disposed  is  such  as  to  give  to    the 


*The  writer  cites  many  examples  of  the  very  serious  and  often  fatal  results  of 
the  absorption  of  the  poison  of  dead  animal  matter.  The  fact  is  now  so  fully 
recognized  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  record  them  here.  Those  who  at  this  day 
engage  in  examinations />w^  mortem,  are  careful  to  protect  the  hands  in  some  way 
from  the  dangers  attendant.  No  prudent  physician  or  surgeon  is  willing,  after  a 
fost  mortem  which  he  has  himself  performed,  to  respond  to  a  call  upon  a  partu- 
rient woman. 


EFFECTS  OF  AN  INFECTED  ATMOSPHERE.     73 

human  lungs  an  almost  incredible  extent  of  absorbing  surface,  while 
at  every  point  of  this  surface  there  is  a  vascular  tube  ready  to  receive 
any  substance  imbibed  by  it,  and  to  carry  it  at  once  into  the  current 
of  the  circulation.  Hence  the  instantaneousness  and  the  dreadful 
energy  with  which  certain  poisons  act  upon  the  system  when  brought 
into  contact  with  the  pulmonary  surface.  A  single  inspiration  of  the 
concentrated  prussic  acid,  for  example,  is  capable  of  killing  with  the 
rapidity  of  a  stroke  of  lightning.  So  rapidly  does  this  poison  affect 
the  system,  that  more  than  one  physiologist  has  lost  his  life  by  incau- 
tiously inhaling  it  while  using  it  for  the  purpose  of  experiment.  The 
substances  mixed  with  or  suspended  in  the  atmosphere  may  be  con- 
veyed with  it  to  the  lungs,  and  immediately  enter  the  circulating  mass. 
Any  one  may  satisfy  himself  of  this  merely  by  passing  through  a 
chamber  recently  painted.  The  vapor  of  the  turpentine  diffused  in 
the  room  is  transmitted  to  the  lungs  with  the  air  which  is  breathed 
and  passing  into  the  circulation,  exhibits  its  effects  in  some  of  the 
fluid  excretions  of  the  body  even  more  rapidly  than  if  it  had  been 
taken  into  the  stomach." 

Facts  such  as  these  help  us  to  understand  the  produc- 
tion and  propagation  of  disease  through  the  medium  of 
an  infected  atmosphere,  whether  on  a  large  scale,  as  in 
the  case  of  an  epideinic,  which  rapidly  extends  over  a 
nation  or  a  continent,  or  on  a  small  scale,  in  the  sick- 
chamber,  the  dissecting-room,  the  church,  and  the  church- 
yard. « 

The  exhalations  arising  from  dead  bodies  in  the  dissect- 
ing-room are  in  general  so  much  diluted  by  admixture  with 
atmospheric  air,  through  the  ventilation  which  is  carefully 

maintained,  that  they  do  not  commonly  affect  the  health  in 
10 


74  AIR  OF  DISSECTING   ROOMS. 

a  very.striking  or  marked  manner.  By  great  attention  to 
ventilation  it  is  no  doubt  possible  to  pursue  the  study  of 
anatomy  with  tolerable  impunity.  Yet  few  teachers  of 
anatomy  deny  that  without  this  precaution,  this  pursuit 
is  apt  to  injure  the  health,  and  that  with  all  the  care 
which  can  be  taken,  it  sometimes  produces  such  a  degree 
of  diarrhoea,  and  at  other  times  such  a  general  derange- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs,  as  imperatively  to  require 
an  absence  for  a  time  from  the  dissecting-room,  and  a 
removal  to  the  pure  air  of  the  country.  The  same  state- 
ments are  uniformly  made  by  the  professors  of  veterinary 
anatomy.  The  enquiries  personally  made  into  the  state 
of  health  of  persons  licensed  to  slaughter  horses,  called 
knackers  is,  that  though  they  maintain  their  health 
apparently  for  a  time,  yet  the  functions  of  the  nutri- 
tive organs  finally  become  deranged.  They  begin  to 
emaciate  and  present  a  cadaverous  appearance,  slight 
wounds  fester  and  become  difficult  to  heal,  and  upon  the 
whole  they  are  a  short-lived  class. 

The  exhalations  arising  from  dead  bodies  interred  in 
the  vaults  of  churches  and  graveyards  are  also  so  much 
diluted  by  the  surrounding  air  that  they  do  not  commonly 
affect  the  health  in  so  immediate  and  direct  a  manner  as 
plainly  to  indicate  the  source  of  these  noxious  influences. 
It  is  only  when  some  accidental  circumstances  have  fa- 
vored their  accumulation  or  concentration  that  the  effects 
become  so  sensible  as  obviously  to  declare  their  cause. 
Every  now  and  then  they  do  occur,  of  which  there  are 


PUTRID   EXHALATIONS   IN   CHURCHES.  75 

many  instances  on  record.  It  may  suffice  for  the  present 
to  mention  only  one,  the  particulars  of  which  are  obtained 
from  a  well-known  gentleman,  the  accuracy  of  whose  state- 
ments may  be  relied  upon. 

Mr.  Hutchinson,  surgeon,  Farringdon  street,  was  called 
on  Monday  morning,  March  15th,  1841,  to  attend  a  girl 
aged  fourteen,  who  was  suffering  from  typhus  fever  of  a 
highly  malignant  character.  The  girl  was  a  daughter  of 
a  pew-opener  in  one  of  the  large  city  churches,  situated 
in  the  center  of  a  small  burying  ground,  which  had  been 
used  for  interments  for  centuries,  the  ground  of  which 
was  raised  much  above  its  natural  level,  and  was  saturated 
with  the  remains  of  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  There  were 
vaults  beneath  the  church  in  which  it  was  still  the  custom, 
as  it  had  long  been,  to  bury  the  dead.  The  girl  in  ques- 
tion had  recently  returned  from  the  country  where  she 
had  been  at  school.  On  the  preceding  Friday,  the  fourth 
day  before  Mr.  Hutchinson  saw  her,  she  had  assisted  her 
mother  during  three  hours,  and  on  Saturday  during  one 
hour,  in  shaking  and  cleansing  the  matting  of  the  aisles 
and  pews  of  the  church.  The  mother  stated  that  this 
work  was  generally  done  once  in  six  weeks  ;  that  the  dust 
and  effluvia  which  arose  always  had  a  peculiar  fetid  and 
offensive  odor,  very  unlike  the  dust  which  collects  in  pri- 
vate houses ;  that  it  invariably  made  her  (the  mother) 
ill  for  at  least  a  day  afterwards,  and  that  it  used  to  make 
the  grandmother  of  the  present  patient  so  unwell  that 
she  was  compelled  to  hire  a  person  to  perform  the  duty. 


7^  CHURCHYARD    MIASM. 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day  on  which  this  young 
girl  now  ill  had  been  engaged  in  her  employment,  she  was 
seized  with  shivering,  severe  pain  in  the  head,  back  and 
limbs,  and  other  symptoms  of  commencing  fever.  On 
the  following  day  all  these  symptoms  were  aggravated, 
and  in  two  days  afterwards  malignant  fever  was  fully  de- 
veloped. The  skin  was  burning  hot,  the  tongue  dry,  and 
covered  with  a  dark  brown  fur,  the  thirst  urgent,  the  pain 
of  the  head,  back  and  extremities  severe,  attended  with 
hurried  and  oppressed  breathing,  great  restlessness  and 
prostration,  anxiety  of  countenance,  low,  muttering  deli- 
rium, and  a  pulse  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  in  the 
minute." 

In  this  case  it  is  probable  that  particles  of  noxious  animal 
matter  progressively  accumulated  in  the  matting  during 
the  intervals  of  its  cleansing,  set  free  by  this  operation 
and  diffused  in  the  atmosphere,  always  powerful  enough 
to  sensibly  affect  those  accustomed  to  inhale  them,  were 
sufficiently  concentrated  to  produce  actual  fever  in  one 
wholly  unaccustomed  to  them,  and  rendered  increasingly 
susceptible  by  her  recent  residence  in  the  pure  air  of  the 
country.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  miasms  sometimes 
act  with  the  greatest  intensity  on  those  who  habitually 
breathe  the  purest  air. 

The  miasms  arising  from  churchyards  are  in  general 
too  much  diluted  by  the  surrounding  air  to  strike  the 
neighboring  inhabitants  with  sudden  and  severe  disease, 
yet  they  may  materially  injure  the  health,  and  the  evi- 


DECAY  AND   PUTREFACTION.  77 

dence  is  decisive  that  they  often  do  so.  Among  others 
who  sometimes  obviously  suffer  from  this  cause  are  the 
famines  of  clergymen,  when,  as  occasionally  happens,  the 
vicarage  or  rectory  is  situated  very  close  to  a  full  church- 
yard. One  clergyman's  family  I  know,  whose  dwelling- 
house  is  so  close  to  an  extremely  full  churchyard,  was  an- 
noyed by  a  very  disagreeable  smell  from  the  graves, 
always  perceptible  in  some  of  the  sitting  and  sleeping 
rooms.  The  mother  of  this  family  states  that  she  has 
never  had  a  day's  health  since  she  has  resided  there,  and 
that  her  children  are  always  ailing.  Their  ill  health  is 
attributed,  both  by  the  family  and  their  medical  friends, 
to  the  emanations  of  the  churchyard. 

The  report  of  Mr.  Chad  wick  gives  also  a  communica- 
tion, by  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  as  follows : 

"  There  are  two  kinds  of  changes  which  animal  and  vegetable  matter 
undergo  when  exposed  to  certain  influences.  They  are  known  by  the 
terms  of  'decay'  and  'putrefaction.'  Decay,  properly  so  called,  is 
a  union  of  the  elements  of  organic  matter  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air ; 
while  puirefacUon,  although  generally  commencing  with*  decay,  is  a 
change  or  transformation  of  the  elements  of  the  organic  body  itself, 
without  any  necessary  union  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  When  de- 
cay proceeds  in  a  body  without  putrefaction,  offensive  smells  are  not 
generated,  but  if  the  air  in  contact  with  the  decaying  matter  be  in  any 
way  deficient,  the  decay  passes  into  putrefaction,  and  putrid  smells 
arise.  They  are  rarely,  if  ever,  evolved  from  substances  destitute  of 
the  element  nitrogen. 

"  Both  decaying  and  putrefying  matters  are  capable  of  communicat- 
ing their  own  state  of  putrefaction  or  of  decay  to  any  organic  matter 


78  DECAYING  EMANATIONS. 

with  which  they  may  come  in  contact.  To  take  the  simplest  case  : 
A  piece  of  decayed  wood,  a  decaying  orange,  or  a  piece  of  tainted 
flesh  is  capable  of  causing  similar  decay  or  putrefaction  in  another 
piece  of  wood,  orange,  or  flesh.  In  a  similar  manner  the  decaying 
gases  evolved  from  sewers  occasion  the  putrescence  of  meat  or  of 
vegetables  hung  in  the  vicinity  of  the  place  from  which  they  escape. 
But  this  communication  of  putrefaction  is  not  confined  to  dead  matter. 
When  tainted  meat  or  putrescent  blood  puddings  are  taken  as  food, 
their  state  of  putrefaction  is  frequently  communicated  to  the  bodies  of 
the  persons  who  have  used  them,  a  disease  analogous  to  rot  ensues, 
and  generally  terminates  fatally.  Happily  this  disease  is  but  little 
known  among  us,  but  it  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  Germany. 

"  The  decay  or  putrefaction  communicated  by  putrid  gases  or  by  de- 
caying matters  does  not  always  assume  one  form,  but  varies  according 
to  the  organs  to  which  their  peculiar  state  is  imparted.  If  communi- 
cated to  the  blood  it  might  possibly  happen  that  fever  may  arise ;  if 
to  the  intestines,  dysentery  or  diarrhoea  might  result.  I  think  it  might 
even  be  a  question  worthy  of  consideration  whether  consumption 
may  not  arise  from  such  exposure.  Certainly  it  seems  to  do  so  among 
cattle.  The  men  who  are  employed  in  cleaning  out  drains  are  very 
liable  to  attacks  of  dysentery  and  of  diarrhoea.  I  recollect  instances 
of  similar  cases  occurring  among  some  fellow-students  when  I 
attended  the  dissecting-room. 

"  The  effects  produced  by  decaying  emanations  will  vary  according 
to  the  state  of  putrefaction  or  decay  in  which  these  emanations  are, 
as  well  as  according  to  their  intensity  or  concentration.  Thus  it 
occurs  frequently  that  persons  susceptible  to  contagion  may  be  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  fever  patient  and  not  take  the  disease.  I  know  one  cele- 
brated medical  man  who  attends  his  own  patients  with  fever  without 
danger,  but  who  has  never  been  able  to  take  charge  of  the  fever  wards 
of  an  infirmary,  from  the  circumstance  of  his  being  unable  to  resist 


CONCENTRATED    MIASM.  79 

the  influence  of  contagion  under  such  circumstances.  This  gentle- 
man has  had  fever  several  times.  This  shows  that  the  contagion  of 
fever  requires  a  certain  degree  of  conce7itration  before  it  is  able  to 
produce  its  immediate  effects.  A  knowledge  of  this  circumstance  has 
induced  several  infirmaries  to  abolish  altogether  fever  wards,  and  to 
scatter  the  fever  patients  indiscriminately  through  the  medical  wards, 
Owing  to  this  distribution,  cases  in  which  fever  is  communicated  to 
other  patients  or  nurses  in  the  infirmary  are  very  infrequent,  although 
they  are  far  from  being  so  in  those  hospitals  where  the  fever  cases  are 
grouped  together. 

"  I  consider  that  the  want  of  attention  to  the  circumstance  of  the 
concentration  of  decaying  emanations  is  a  good  reason  that  the 
effects  of  miasmata  in  producing  fever  is  still  a  qucestio  vexata.  Thus 
there  may  be  many  churchyards  and  sewers  evolving  decaying  matter, 
and  yet  no  fever  may  occur  in  the  locality.  Some  other  more  modi- 
fied effect  may  be  produced,  according  to  the  degree  of  concentration 
of  the  decaying  matter,  such  as  diarrhoea,  or  even  dysentery  ;  or  there 
may  be  no  perceptible  effects  produced,  although  the  blood  may  still 
be  thrown  into  a  diseased  state,  which  will  render  it  susceptible  to 
any  specific  contagion  that  approaches.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
decaying  exhalations  will  not  always  produce  similar  effects,  but  that 
these  will  vary,  not  only  according  to  the  concentration,  but  also 
according  to  the  state  of  decomposition  in  which  the  decaying  mat- 
ters are. 

"  The  rennet  for  making  cheese  is  in  a  peculiar  state  of  decay,  or 
rather  is  capable  of  a  series  of  states  of  decay,  and  the  flavor  of  the 
cheese  manufactured  by  means  of  it  varies  also,  according  to  the 
state  of  the  rennet.  Just  so  with  the  diseases  produced  by  the  pecu 
liar  state  or  concentration  of  decaying  matters  or  of  specific  conta- 
gions. When  the  Asiatic  Cholera  visited  this  country,  many  of  the 
towns  were  afflicted  with  dysentery  before  the  cholera  appeared  in  an 


80  MIASMS   FROM   DECOMPOSITION. 

unquestionable  form.  In  like  manner  the  miasmata  evolved  from 
churchyards  may  produce  injurious  effects  which  may  not  be  sufTi- 
ciently  marked  to  call  attention  until  they  assume  a  more  serious  form 
by  becoming  more  concentrated.  But  notwithstanding  the  absence 
of  marked  effects,  it  is  extremely  probable  that  constant  exposure  to 
miasmata  may  produce  a  diseased  state  of  the  blood.  Thus  I  had 
occasion  to  visit  and  report  upon,  amongst  other  matters,  the  state  of 
slaughter-houses  in  Bristol.  These  are  generally  situated  in  courts 
very  insufficiently  ventilated,  as  all  courts  are.  I  remarked  that  the 
men  employed  in  the  slaughter  houses  had  a  remarkably  cadaverous 
hue,  and  this  was  participated  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  court.  So  much  was  this  the  case  that  in  a  court  where 
the  smells  from  the  slaughterhouse  were  very  offensive,  my  com- 
panion had  immediately  to  return,  from  sickness.  I  immediately  singled 
out  one  person  as  not  belonging  to  the  court  from  a  number  of  peo- 
ple who  ran  out  of  their  houses  to  inquire  the  object  of  my  visit.  The 
person  who  attracted  my  attention,  from  her  healthy  appearance 
compared  with  the  others,  had  entered  this  court  to  pay  a  visit  to  a 
neighbor." 

The  conclusions  which  appear  to  be  firmly  established 
by  the  evidence  and  the  preponderant  medical  testimony, 
are  on  every  point,  as  to  the  essential  character  of  the 
physical  evils  connected  with  the  practice  of  interment, 
so  closely  co-incident  with  the  conclusion  deduced  from 
observations  on  the  continent,  that  they  may  be  stated 
in  the  following  terms  : 

"The  injurious  effect  of  exhalations  from  the  decompo- 
sition in  question  upon  the  life  and  health  of  man,  is 
proved  by  a  suf^cient  number  of  trustworthy  facts." 


LESSONS   FROM    PUTRID    MIASMS.  8l 

"That  this  injurious  influence  is  by  no  means  constant, 
and  depends  on  varying  and  not  yet  sufficiently  explained 
circumstances." 

"That  the  injurious  influence  is  manifest  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  concentration  of  putrid  emanations 
especially  in  confined  places  ;  and  in  such  cases  of  concen- 
tration, the  injurious  influence  is  manifest  in  the  produc- 
tion of  asphyxia,  and  the  sudden  and  entire  extinction  of 
life." 

"  That  in  a  state  less  concentrated,  putrid  emanations 
produce  various  effects  on  the  nerves,  of  less  importance, 
as  fainting,  nausea,  headache,  languor." 

"  These  emanations,  however,  if  their  effect  is  often 
repeated,  or  if  the  emanations  be  long  applied,  produce 
nervous  and  putrid  fevers,  or  impart  to  fevers  which  have 
arisen  from  other  causes,  a  typhoid  or  putrid  character." 

"  Apparently  they  furnish  the  principal  cause  of  the 
most  developed  form  of  typhus,  that  is  to  say,  the  plague. 
Besides  the  products  of  decomposition,  the  contagious 
material  may  also  be  active  in  the  emanations  arising  from 
the  dead  bodies." 

Such  being  the  nature  of  the  emanations  from  human 
remains  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  or  in  a  state  of  cor- 
ruption, it  seems  to  be  hopeless  to  obtain,  in  a  crowded 
district,  any  definite  or  proximate  evidence  of  the  extent 
of  the  operation  of  those  influences  on  the  health  of  the 
people.      In  such  districts  the  effects  of  an  invisible  fluid 


82  EFFECTS   OF   GRAVEYARD   SMELLS. 

have  not  been  observed  amidst  a  complication  of  other 
causes,  each  of  a  nature  ascertained  to  produce  an  injuri- 
ous effect  upon  the  general  health,  but  undistinguished 
except  when  it  accidentally  becomes  predominant.  The 
sense  of  smell  in  the  majority  of  inhabitants  seems  to  be 
destroyed,  and  having  no  perception  even  of  stenches 
which  are  insupportable  to  strangers,  they  are  unable  to 
note  the  excessive  escapes  of  miasm  as  antecedents  of 
disease.  Occasionally  some  medical  witness,  who  has 
been  accustomed  to  the  smell  of  the  dissecting-room, 
detects  that  of  human  remains  from  graveyards,  and 
some  have  said  that  they  can  detect  what  is  called  the 
"  dead  man's  smell,"  when  no  one  else  can,  and  can 
distinguish  it  from  that  of  the  sewers. 

The  immediate  consequence  of  the  smell  from  a  grave 
yard  usually  noted  is  headache.  A  military  officer  said 
that  when  his  men  occupied  as  a  barrack  a  building  which 
opened  over  a  crowded  burial  ground  in  Liverpool,  the 
smell  from  the  ground  was  at  times  exceedingly  offensive, 
and  that  he  and  his  men  suffered  from  dysentery.  A 
gentleman  who  had  resided  near  that  ground  said  that  he 
was  convinced  that  his  own  health  and  that  of  his  child- 
dren  suffered  from  it,  and  that  he  had  removed  to  avoid 
further  injury.  The  following  testimony  of  a  lady  at 
Manchester  is  adduced  as  an  example  of  the  more  specific 
perception  of  its  effects.  It  brings  to  view  also  that  in 
towns  it  is  not  only  in  surface  emanations  from  graveyards 
alone,  that  morbific  matter  escapes : 


SEWERS   MADE  FOUL  BY   GRAVEYARDS.  83 

You  resided  formerly  in  the  liouse  contiguous  to  the  burying-ground 

of chapel,  did  you  not  ?     Yes,  I  did,  but  I  was  obliged  to  leave 

it.  Why  were  you  so  obliged  ?  When  the  wind  was  west,  the  smell 
was  dreadful.  There  is  a  main  sewer  runs  through  the  burying- 
ground,  and  the  smell  of  the  dead  bodies  came  through  this  sewer  up 
our  drain,  and  until  we  got  that  trapped  it  was  quite  intolerable.  Do 
you  think  the  smell  arose  from  the  emanations  of  the  sewer,  and  not 
from  the  burying-ground  ?  I  am  sure  they  came  from  the  burying- 
ground  ;  the  smell  coming  from  the  drain  was  exactly  the  same  as 
that  which  reached  us  when  the  wind  was  west,  and  blew  upon  us 
from  the  burying-ground.  The  smell  was  very  peculiar ;  it  exactly 
resembled  the  smell  which  clothes  have  when  they  are  removed  from 
a  dead  body.  My  servants  would  not  remain  in  the  house  on  account 
of  it.     I  had  several  cooks  who  removed  on  this  account. 

Did  you  observe  any  effects  on  your  health  when  the  smells  were 
bad  ?  Yes ;  I  am  liable  to  headaches,  and  these  were  always  bad 
when  the  smells  were  so,  also.  They  were  often  accompanied  by 
diarrhoea,  in  this  house.  Before  I  went  there  and  since  I  left,  my 
headaches  have  been  trifling. 

Were  any  of  the  other  inmates  of  the  house  affected  with  illness  } 
I  had  often  to  send  for  the  surgeon  to  my  servants,  who  were  liable 
to  ulcerated  sore  throats. 

And  your  children  ;  were  they  also  affected  ?  My  youngest  child 
was  very  delicate,  and  we  thought  he  could  not  have  survived.  Since 
he  came  here  he  has  become  quite  strong  and  healthy,  but  I  have  no 
right  to  say  the  burying-ground  had  any  connection  with  his  health. 

In  the  course  of  an  examination  of  the  chairman  and 
surveyor  of  the  Holborn  and  Finsbury  Division  of  Sewers, 
oji  the  general  management  of  sewers  in  London,  the 
following  passage  occurs : 


84  SEWERS   AFFECTED    BY    GRAVEYARDS. 

You  do  not  believe  that  the  nuisance  arises  in  all  cases  from  the 
main  sewers  ?  (Mr.  Roe.)  Not  always  from  the  main  sewers.  (Mr. 
Mills.)  Connected  with  this  point  I  would  mention  that  where  the 
sewers  came  in  contact  with  the  churchyards,  the  exudation  is  most 
offensive. 

Have  you  noticed  that  in  more  than  one  case  ?     Yes. 

In  those  cases  have  you  had  any  opportunities  of  tracing  in  what 
manner  the  exudations  from  the  grave-yards  passed  to  the  sewer  ? 
It  must  have  been  through  the  sides  of  the  sewers. 

Then,  if  that  be  the  case,  the  sewer  itself  must  have  given  way. 
No,  I  apprehend  even  if  you  use  concrete,  it  is  impossible  but  that  the 
adjacent  waters  would  find  their  way  through  the  cement.  It  is  the 
natural  consequence.  The  wells  of  the  houses  adjacent  to  the  sewers 
all  get  dry  whenever  the  sewers  are  lowered. 

You  are  perfectly  satisfied  that  in  the  course  of  time  exudations  very 
often  do,  to  a  certain  extent,  pass  through  the  brick-work.''  Yes;  it 
is  impossible  to  prevent  it. 

Have  you  ever  happened  to  notice  whether  there  was  putrid  matter 
in  all  cases  where  the  sewer  passed  through  a  burial-ground  .''  'the 
last  church-yard  I  passed  by  in  the  parish  of  St.  Pancreas,  when  the 
sewer  was  constructing,  I  obser\^ed  that  the  exudation  from  it  into  the 
sewer  was  peculiarly  offensive,  and  was  known  to  arise  from  the 
decomposition  of  the  bodies. 

At  what  distance  was  the  sewer  from  the  churchyard .''  Thirty 
feet. 

Mr.  Roe  subsequently  stated  : 

"  Mr.  Jacob  Post,  living  at  the  corner  of  Church  street.  Lower  Road, 
Islington,  stated  to  the  clerk  of  our  works,  when  we  were  building  a 
sewer  opposite  Mr.  Post's  house,  that  he  had  a  pump,  the  water  from 
the  well  attached  to  which  had  been  very  good,  and  used  for  domes- 


WELLS   TAINTED   BY   GRAVEYARDS.  85 

tic  purposes ;  but  that  since  a  burying-ground  was  formed  above  his 
house,  the  water  of  his  well  had  Itecome  of  so  disagreeable  a  flavor  as 
to  prevent  its  being  used  as  heretofore.  He  was  in  hopes  that  the 
extra  depth  of  our  sewer  would  relieve  him  from  the  drainage  of  the 
burying-ground,  to  which  he  attributed  the  spoiling  of  his  water." 

Professor  Brande  states  that  he  has  "  frequently  found 
the  well  water  of  London  contaminated  by  organic  mat- 
ters and  ammoniacal  salts,"  and  refers  to  an  instance  of 
one  well  near  a  churchyard,  "  the  water  of  which  had  not 
only  acquired  odor  but  color  from  the  soil,"  and  mentions 
other  instances  of  which  he  has  heard,  as  justifying  the 
opinion  that  as  "  very  many  of  these  wells  are  adjacent 
to  churchyards,  the  accumulating  soil  of  which  has  been 
so  heaped  up  by  the  succession  of  dead  bodies  and  cof- 
fins, and  the  product  of  their  decomposition,  as  to  form 
a  filtering  apparatus,  by  which  all  superficial  springs  must 
of  course  be  more  or  less  affected."  Some  of  the  best 
springs  in  the  metropolis  are,  fortunately,  of  a  depth  not 
likely  to  be  considerably  affected  by  such  filtration.  "  In 
Leicester  and  other  places  I  have  been  informed  of  the 
disuse  of  wells  near  churchyards  on  account  of  the  per- 
ception of  a  taint  in  them."  The  difficulty  of  distin- 
guishing by  any  analysis  the  qualities  of  the  morbific 
matter,  when  held  in  solution  or  suspension  in  water,  in 
combination  with  other  matters,  in  towns,  and  the  conse- 
quent importance  of  a  separate  examination  already  given 
to  those  qualities,  may  be  appreciated  by  such  cases  as 
the  following,  which  are  by  no  means  infrequent : 


86  PROXIMITY   OF  WELLS  TO   GRAVEYARDS. 

"  In  the  instance  of  the  water  in  one  well  in  the  metro- 
polis, which  had  ceased  to  be  used  in  consequence  of  an 
offensive  taste  (contracted,  as  was  supposed,  from  the 
draina^Tc  of  an  adjacent  churchyard),  it  was  doubted 
whether  it  could  be  determined  by  analysis  what  portion 
of  the  pollution  arose  from  that  source,  what  from  the 
leakage  of  adjacent  cesspools,  and  what  from  the  leakage 
of  coal  gas  from  adjacent  gas  pipes.  In  most  cases  of 
such  complications,  the  parties  responsible  for  any  one 
contributing  source  of  injury  are  apt  to  challenge,  as  they 
may  safely  do,  distinct  proof  of  the  separate  effect  pro- 
duced by  that  one.  If,  therefore,  the  combined  evil  is  to 
remain  until  complaints  are  made  of  separate  causes,  and 
their  specific  effects  on  the  health,  and  until  they  can  be 
supported  by  demonstration,  perpetual  immunity  would 
be  insured  to  the  most  noxious  combinations. 

The  efTects  of  unguarded  interments  have,  however, 
been  observed  with  greater  care  on  the  Continent,  and 
the  proximity  of  wells  to  burial-grounds  has  been  reported 
to  be  injurious.  Thus  it  is  stated  in  a  collection  of 
reports  concerning  the  cemeteries  of  the  town  of  Ver- 
sailles, that  the  water  of  the  wells  which  lie  bcloio  the 
churchyard  of  St.  Louis,  could  not  be  used  on  account 
of  its  stench.  In  consequence  of  various  investigations 
in  France,  a  law  was  passed  prohibiting  the  opening  of 
wells  within  lOO  metres  of  any  place  of  burial ;  but  this 
distance  is  now  said  to  be  insufficient  for  deep  wells, 
which  have  been  found,  on  examination,  to  be  polluted  at 


SURFACE  EMANATIONS   MALIGNANT,  8/ 

a  distance  of  from  150  to  200  metres.  In  some  parts  of 
Germany  the  opening  of  wells  nearer  that  300  feet  has 
been  prohibited. 

Where  the  one  deleterious  cause  is  less  complicated 
with  others,  as  in  open  plains  after  the  burial  of  the  dead 
on  fields  of  battle,  the  effects  are  perceived  in  the  offen- 
siveness  of  the  surface  emanations,  and  also  the  pollution 
of  the  water,  followed  by  disease,  which  compels  the 
survivors  to  change  their  encampment. 

The  fact  is  thus  adduced  in  the  evidence  of  Doctor 
Copeland : 

"  It  is  fully  ascertained  and  well  recognized  that  the  alluvial  soil,  or 
whatever  soil  that  receives  the  exuvis  of.  animal  matter  or  the  bodies 
of  dead  animals,  will  become  rich  in  general.  It  will  abound  in  animal 
matter,  and  the  water  that  percolates  through  the  soil  thus  enriched 
will  thus  become  injurious  to  the  health  of  those  who  use  it.  That 
has  been  proved  on  many  occasions  and  especially  in  warm  climates. 
Several  remarkable  facts  illustrative  of  it  occurred  in  the  peninsular 
campaigns.  It  was  found,  for  instance,  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  where,  as 
Sir  J.  Macgregor  states,  in  his  account  of  the  health  of  the  army, 
there  were  20,000  dead  bodies  put  into  the  ground  within  the  space 
of  two  or  three  months ;  that  this  circumstance  appeared  to  affect 
the  health  of  the  troops,  who  were  affected  by  malignant  and  low 
fevers  and  dysentery,  or  fevers  frequently  putting  on  a  dysenteric 
character.'' 

In  the  metropolis,  on  spaces  of  ground  which  (in  all) 
do  not  exceed  203  acres,  closely  surrounded  by  the  abodes 
of  the  living,  layer  upon   layer  of  the  dead  (each  layer 


88  DEEP   BURIAT.   NOT    PROTECTIVE. 

consisting   of  a  population    numerically  equivalent   to  a 

large  army  of  20,000  adults  and  nearly  30,000  youths  and 

children),  are  every  year  imperfectly  interred.    Within  the 

present  generation,  upwards  of  a  million   of  dead  must 

have  been  interred  in  these  same  spaces. 

It  has  been  considered  that  all  danger  from  interments 

in  towns  would  be  obviated  if  no  burials  were  allowed 
except  at  a  depth  of  five  feet.  But  bodies  buried  much 
deeper  are  found  to  decay,  and  so  certain  as  a  body  has 
wasted  or  disappeared,  is  the  fact  that  a  deleterious  gas 
has  escaped.  In  the  towns  where  the  graveyards  and 
streets  are  paved,  the  morbific  matter  must  be  diffused 
more  widely  through  the  subsoil,  and  escape  with  the 
drainage.  If  the  interments  are  so  deep  as  to  impede 
escapes  at  the  surface,  there  is  only  the  greater  danger  of 
escape  by  deep  drainage  and  the  pollution  of  springs. 

Doctor  Reid  detected  the  escape  of  deleterious  miasma 
from  graves  of  more  than  twenty  feet  deep.  After  notic- 
ing the  accumulation  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  deep  pits 
dug  in  some  churchyards  for  receiving  twenty  or  thirty 
bodies,  and  then  suggesting  a  method  for  their  ventila- 
tion, he  further  says: 

"  Where  the  drainage  of  the  district  in  which  the  church  may  be 
placed  is  of  an  inferior  description,  and  liable  to  be  impeded  period- 
ically by  the  state  of  the  tide,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Houses  of 
Pariiament,  where  all  the  drains  are  closed  at  high  water,  the  atmos- 
phere is  frequently  of  the  most  inferior  quality.  I  am  fully  satisfied, 
for  instance,  not  only  from  my  own  observations,  but  from  different 


CHURCHYARD    AIR    IN  DRAINS.  89 

statements  which  have  reached  me  and  also  from  the  observations  of 
parties  who  have  repeatedly  examined  the  subject  at  my  request,  that 
the  state  of  the  burying-ground  around  St.  Margaret's  Church  is 
prejudicial  to  the  air  supplied  at  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  also 
to  the  whole  neighborhood.  One  of  them  stated  to  me  lately  that  he 
had  avoided  the  churchyard  for  the  last  six  months,  in  consequence  of 
the  effects  he  experienced  the  last  time  he  visited  it.  These  offensive 
emanations  have  been  noticed  at  all  hours  of  the  night  and  morning, 
and  even  during  the  day  the  smell  of  the  churchyard  has  been  con- 
sidered to  have  reached  the  vaults  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
traced  to  sewers  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  When  the  barometer  is 
low,  the  surface  of  the  ground  slightly  moist,  the  tide  full  and  the 
temperature  considerable  (all  which  tend  to  favor  the  evolution  of 
effluvia  both  from  the  grave  pits  and  the  drains)  the  most  injurious 
influence  upon  the  air  is  observed.  In  some  places  not  far  from  this 
churchyard,  fresh  meat  is  frequently  tainted  in  a  single  night,  on  the 
ground  floor,  in  situations  where,  at  a  higher  level,  it  may  be  kept 
without  injury  for  a  much  longer  period.  In  some  cases  in  private 
houses,  as  well  as  at  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  I  have  had  to  make  use 
of  ventilating  shafts,  or  of  preparations  of  chlorine,  to  neutralize  the 
offensive  and  deleterious  effects  which  the  exhalations  produced.  No 
grievance,  perhaps,  entails  greater  physical  evils  upon  any  district 
than  the  conjoined  influence  of  bad  drainage  and  crowded  church- 
yards ;  and,  until  the  drainage  of  air  from  drains  shall  be  secured  by 
some  proper  measures,  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  free  from  a  very 
important  defect.  The  drainage  of  air  from  drains  is  desirable  under 
any  circumstances,  but  when  the  usual  contaminations  of  the  drain 
are  increased  by  the  emanations  of  a  loaded  churchyard,  it  becomes 
doubly  imperative  to  introduce  such  measures.  If  anyone  desires  to 
trace  the  progress  of  reaction  by  which  the  graveyards  are  continually 
tending  to  free  themselves  of  their  contents,  a  very  brief  inquiry  will 
12 


QO  ADIPOCIRE. 

give  him  abundant  evidence  on  this  point.  My  attention  was  first 
directed  to  this  matter  in  London  ten  years  ago,  when  a  glass  of  water 
handed  to  me  at  a  hotel,  in  another  district,  presented  a  peculiar  film 
on  its  surface,  which  led  me  to  set  it  aside.  After  numerous  inquiries 
I  was  fully  satisfied  that  the  appearance  which  had  attracted  my  atten- 
tion arose  from  the  coffins  in  a  churchyard  immediately  adjoining  a 
well  from  which  the  water  was  taken.  Defective  as  our  information 
is  as  to  the  precise  quality  of  the  various  products  from  drains,  church- 
yards, and  other  similar  places,  I  think  I  have  seen  enough  to  satisfy 
me  that  in  all  such  situations  the  fluids  of  the  living  system  imbibe 
materials  which,  though  they  do  not  always  produce  great  severity  of 
disease,  speedily  'induce  a  morbid  condition  which,  while  it  renders 
the  body  more  prone  to  attacks  of  fever,  is  more  especially  indicated 
by  the  facility  with  which  all  the  fluids  pass  to  a  state  of  putrefaction 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  slightest  wound  or  cut  is  apt  to  pass 
into  a  sore." 

Mr.  Leigh,  surgeon,  and  lecturer  of  chemistry  at  Man- 
chester, confirms  the  researches  of  Mr.  Reid,  and  observes  : 

"  The  decomposition  of  animal  bodies  is  remarkably  modified  by 
external  circumstances  when  the  bodies  are  immersed  in  or  surrounded 
by  water,  and  particularly,  if  the  water  undergo  frequent  change,  the 
solid  tissues  become  converted  into  adipocire,  a  fatty,  spermaceti-like 
substance,  not  very  prone  to  decomposition,  and  this  change  is  effected 
without  much  gaseous  exhalation.  Under  such  circumstances  nothing 
injurious  could  arise,  but  under  ordinar)'  conditions  slow  decomposi- 
tion would  take  place,  with  the  usual  products  of  the  decomposition 
of  animal  matters.  Here  the  nature  of  the  soil  becomes  of  much  in- 
terest. If  the  burial  ground  be  in  a  damp,  dense,  compact  clay  with 
much  water,  the  water  will  collect  round  the  body,  and  there  will  be  a 


READY    ESCAPE  OF  GASES.  9I 

disposition  to  the  formation  of  adipocire,  whilst  the  clay  will  effectually 
prevent  the  escape  of  gaseous  matter.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
bodies  be  laid  in  sand  or  gravel,  decomposition  will  readily  take  place, 
the  gases  will  easily  penetrate  the  superjacent  soil  and  escape  into  the 
atmosphere,  and  this  with  a  facility  which  may  be  judged  of  when  the 
fact  is  stated,  that  under  a  pressure  of  only  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
of  water,  coal  gas  will  escape  by  any  leakage  in  the  conduit  pipes 
through  a  stratum  of  sand  or  gravel  in  an  exceedingly  short  space  of 
time.  The  three  seem  to  oppose  scarcely  any  resistance  to  its  pas- 
sage to  the  surface.  If  the  joints  of  the  pipes  are  enveloped  by  a  thin 
layer  of  clay,  the  escape  is  effectually  prevented. 

"  If  bodies  were  interred  eight  or  ten  feet  deep  in  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils,  I  am  convinced  little  would  be  gained  by  it.  The  gases  would 
find  a  ready  exit  from  almost  any  practicable  depth." 

Mr.  Leigh  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  "  effects  of 
these  escapes  in  an  otherwise  salubrious  locality  soon 
attract  notice,  but  their  influence,  in  obedience  to  the 
laws  of  gaseous  diffusion,  is  not  the  less  scattered  over  a 
town  because,  in  the  multitude  of  scents,  they  escape 
observation.  In  open  rural  districts  these  gases  soon 
intermix  with  the  air  and  become  so  diluted  that  their 
injurious  tendency  is  less  potent." 

Mr.  Chadwick  closes  that  part  of  his  report  which 
relates  to  interments  in  the  following  words  : 

"  From  what  has  already  been  adduced,  it  may  here  be 
stated  as  a  conclusion,  that  inasmuch  as  there  appear  to 
be  no  cases  in  which  the  emanations  from  human  remains 
in   an   advanced   stage   of  decomposition   are   not   of  a 


92  GRAVE-PITS. 

deleterious  nature,  so  there  is  no  case  in  which  the  liabil- 
ity to  danger  should  be  incurred,  either  by  interment,  or 
by  entombment  in  vaults  (which  is  the  most  dangerous) 
amidst  the  dwellings  of  the  living,  it  being  established  as 
a  general  conclusion,  in  respect  to  the  physical  circum- 
stances of  interment,  from  which  no  adequate  grounds  of 
exception  have  been  established,  that  all  interments  in 
towns,  where  bodies  decompose,  contribute  to  the  mass 
of  atmospheric  impurity  which  is  injurious  to  the  public 
health." 

The  allusion  in  Mr.  Chadwick's  report  to  pits  for  inter- 
ment is  explained  by  Mr.  Duncan  :* 

"  There  are  39  burial-grounds  within  the  borough  of 
Liverpool.  The  interments  take  place  in  graves,  vaults 
or  pits.  In  23  burial-grounds,  graves  only  are  used  ;  in 
7,  graves  and  vaults  only  ;  in  4,  graves  and  pits  ;  in  2, 
graves,  vaults  and  pits,  and  in  i,  pits  only.  The  aggregate 
annual  number  of  interments  within  the  borough  is,  in 
ordinary  years,  from  10,000  to  11,000.  Of  this  number, 
as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated,  about  two-thirds  take  place 
in  pits  and  one-third  in  graves.  The  interments  in 
vaults  probably  do  not  exceed  20  annually. 

"  The  pits  vary  in  depth  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet, 
being  from  seven  to  twelve  feet  long  and  three  and  a  half 
to  nine  feet  wide.     The  number  of  bodies  deposited  in 


*  Mass.  Sanitary  Rep. 


GRAVE-PITS.  93 

each  pit  varies  from  30  to  120.  In  St.  James'  Cemetery, 
about  six  inches  of  earth  are  placed  over  the  coffins  after 
each  day's  interments.  In  the  others  the  coffins  are  cov- 
ered with  two  and  a  half  feet  of  soil,  which  is  removed 
previous  to  the  next  interments  ;  but,  with  this  excep- 
tion,  the  pits  remain  open  or  only  covered  with  a  frame 
work  of  boards  until  filled  with  coffins — a  period  varying 
from  ten  days  in  the  case  of  the  smaller,  to  ten  weeks  in 
the  case  of  the  larger  pits. 

"  It  has  been  estimated  that  an  acre  of  ground  is  capa- 
ble of  affording  decent  interment  to  not  more  than  130 
bodies  yearly  ;  but  in  the  thirty-seven  burial-grounds  of 
Liverpool,  taking  one  with  another,  the  number  of  burials 
to  an  acre  is  fully  double  of  that  just  stated.  Were  the 
calculations  confined  to  those  most  in  use,  the  proportion 
would  be  greatly  augmented.  In  some  of  these  places 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  dig  a  new  grave  without  dis- 
turbing bodies  previously  buried,  and  in  some  the  soil 
when  opened  up  appears  to  consist  chiefly  of  human 
remains  in  a  state  of  decomposition.  It  cannot  be 
doubted  that  graveyards  thus  impregnated  with  decaying 
animal  matter  must  contaminate  the  atmosphere  in  such 
a  way  as  to  injure  the  health,  not  so  much  by  the  pro- 
duction of  sudden  disease,  which  may  be  directly  traced 
to  its  cause,  as  by  a  gradual  process  of  deterioration 
leading  to  the  development  of  disease  in  a  more  slow  but 
equally  certain  manner.  But  the  grand  evil  in  the  case 
of  Liverpool,    and    that   which    calls    most    urgently  for 


94        INTRA-MURAL  BURIAL  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

interference,  is  the  practice  of  burying  large  numbers  of 
bodies  in  open  pits.  It  must  be  unnecessary  to  say  any- 
thing as  to  the  injurious  nature  of  this  practice,  if  it  be 
considered  that  in  the  hot  weather  of  summer  more  than 
lOO  bodies  are  collected  together  in  an  open  pit,  in  all 
stages  of  decomposition,  some  of  them  having  lain  there 
for  upwards  of  two  months.  Only  two  feet  of  space  are 
left  between  the  pits,  so  that  the  moisture,  saturated 
with  the  decomposed  matter  of  an  adjoining  pit,  not 
unfrequently  percolates  through  the  intervening  rock  or 
soil  into  one  that  is  newly  made.  In  no  case  does  the 
soil  covering  the  pit,  when  filled,  exceed  the  legal  mini- 
mum of  two  and  a  half  feet." 

INTRA-MURAL   BURIAL    IN    THE   UNITED   STATES. 

The  testimony  of  the  consequences  of  intra-mural 
interments  has  thus  far  been  drawn  from  England  and 
the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  reasonable  that  it  should 
be  first  noticed.  The  vaults  of  their  churches  and  their 
crowded  churchyards  voice  the  dangers  of  a  system  of 
burial  begotten  at  the  beginning  of  the  middle  ages, 
maintained  throughout  that  dark  period,  and  cherished 
down  to  the  present  century. 

The  first  settlers  of  America  came  with  the  traditions 
of  the  land  of  their  fathers.  They  buried  their  dead  in 
their  midst,  and  their  descendants  do  so  still.  A  popula- 
tion comparatively  sparse  and  the  ventilation  of  broad 


YELLOW   FEVER   IN   NEW   YORK.  95 

acres  surrounding  our  towns  and  cities  have  blinded  the 
people  to  the  evils  which  they  are  fostering  for  their 
descendants,  as  an  inheritance  of  disease  and  death. 
There  is,  however,  evidence  in  our  own  country  sufficient 
to  warn  of  our  dangers,  and  of  the  urgent  necessity  of 
making  provision  against  them. 

YELLOW   FEVER. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  the  attention 
of  the  citizens  of  the  City  of  New  York  was  directed  to 
the  frequency  of  sickly  periods  when  malignant  disease, 
more  particularly  yellow  fever,  was  apprehended  year 
after  year.*  The  streets  then  were  narrow,  irregular  and 
confined.  The  water  was  obtained  from  wells.  The 
slips  on  the  river  borders  were  receptacles  of  immense 
quantities  of  filth,  the  sewers  emptying  into  them 
between  high  and  low  water. 

The  yellow  fever,  when  it  invaded  the  city,  was  not 
confined  to  the  slips,  nor  did  it  always  commence  there, 
though  always  in  localities  where  there  seemed  to  be  a 
recognized  cause.  In  1822  no  nuisances  of  the  ordinary 
kind  existed  in  the  part  of  the  city  which  was  infected. 
The  only  cause  on  which  suspicion   could  rest  was  the 


*  The  writer  of  this  well  remembers,  when  he  was  a  youth  living  on  Long 
Island,  a  few  miles  from  New  York,  the  exodus  of  the  peopfe  from  the  city  into 
the  towns  of  Long  Island,  fleeing  from  the  yellow  fever.  It  did  not  occur  every 
year,  but  so  often  that  it  was  every  year  expected. 


96  TRINITY   CHURCHYARD,   NEW   YORK. 

cemetery  of  Trinity  Churcli,  which  contained  so  many 
thousands  of  dead.  This  cemetery  is  thus  described  by 
Dr.  Ackerly,  (1822)  :  "  Trinity  churchyard  is  on  high 
ground,  west  of  Broadway,  and  contains  about  two  and  a 
half  acres.  It  is  walled  up  on  two  sides  above  the 
adjoining  streets.  Its  westerly  wall  is  ten  or  twelve  feet 
high,  of  more  than  3CX)  feet  on  one  side  of  Lumber  street, 
which  is  very  narrow.  This  church  was  first  built  in 
1698,  and  its  graveyard  has  been  receiving  the  dead  from 
that  time  to  the  present — a  period  of  124  years.  More 
persons  are  probably  interred  within  its  precincts  than  in 
any  burying-ground  in  the  city,  and  it  is  supposed  to  con- 
tain the  remains  of  human  beings  almost  equal  in  number 
to  the  present  population  of  New  York.  A  burial  can 
scarcely  take  place  without  disturbing  a  previous  one, 
and  the  bodies  cannot  be  deposited  at  a  sufficient  depth. 
I  have  seen  a  corpse*  in  Trinity  churchyard  not  more 
than  eighteen  inches  under  ground,  and  a  less  depth  in 
another  instance  in  another  burying-ground  in  this  city." 
Dr.  Ackerly  claims,  with  justice,  that  such  collections 
must  become  a  cause  of  sickening  exhalations,  and  a  resi- 
dence near  them  cannot  be  safe  and  healthful.  He 
further  says:  "  It  may  be  asked,  what  proof  have  we  of 
its  sickening  influence,  and  why  has  it  not  before  caused 
similar  mischief?  To  this  it  may  be  answered,  in  general, 
that  the  cup  must  be  full  before  an  addition  will  make  it 


*  There  are  many  now  living  who  can  testify  to  the  offensive  odor  from  the  yard 
when  passing  it  in  the  evening  on  Broadway. 


PESTILENTIAL   VAPORS    IN   NEW   YORK.  97 

overflow.  But  this  same  ground  emitted  pestilential 
vapors  during  the  revolutionary  war,  the  recollection  of 
which  is  not  obliterated  from  the  memory  of  a  number 
of  living  witnesses.  In  the  hard  winter  of  1780-81,  this 
city  was  in  possession  of  the  enemy,  and  the  ground  was 
so  frozen  that  the  soldiers  and  others  who  were  buried 
there  during  that  long  and  severe  winter  were  interred 
but  a  small  distance  beneath  the  surface.  The  conse- 
quence was  that  in  the  ensuing  warm  season  it  became  so 
offensive  as  to  require  the  interposition  of  the  military 
commandant,  and  the  Hessian  soldiers  were  employed  in 
covering  the  whole  ground  with  a  fresh  stratum  of  earth 
three  or  four  feet  thick." 

In  1 8 14  a  battalion  of  militia  was  stationed  on  a  lot  in 
Broadway,  the  rear  of  which  was  bounded  on  Potter's 
Field  (now  Washington  Square),  from  which  arose  a  most 
deadly  effluvium.  A  number  of  the  soldiers  were  attacked 
with  diarrhoea  and  fever.  They  were  removed  at  once. 
One  of  the  sick  died.     The  others  rapidly  recovered. 

An  article  in  the  Comm.ercial  Advertiser ,  Sept.  7,  1822, 
furnishes  further  facts.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
graveyard  being  above  the  streets  on  the  west,  and  encom- 
passed by  a  massive  stone  wall,  and  the  east  side  being 
level  with  Broadway,  it  results  that  this  body  of  earth, 
the  surface  of  which  has  no  declivity  to  carry  off  the 
rains,  thus  becomes  a  great  reservoir  of  contaminat- 
ing fluids,  suspended  above  the  adjacent  streets.  In 
proof  of  this  it  is  stated  that  in  a  house  in  Thames  street 

13 


98  YELLOW   FEVER  IN  NEW   YORK. 

springs  of  water  pouring  in  from  that  ground  occasioned 
the  removal  of  the  tenants  on  account  of  their  exceeding 
fcetidness.  The  cellars  of  all  the  houses  in  the  streets 
west  of  the  churchyard  were  all  more  or  less  accessible  to' 
impure  springs  of  water.  These  springs  had  their  source 
in  the  graveyard,  which  was  twenty-five  or  more  feet 
higher  than  the  last  street  below  (west)  it.  The  report 
of  the  Board  of  Health  up  to  Saturday,  October  26,  gave 
the  number  of  cases  of  yellow  fever  as  401.  The  aggre- 
gate mortality  was  256,  and  the  comparative  mortality  of 
this  Broadway  district  with  the  other  district  where  the 
disease  occurred  was  nearly  three  to  one.  "  This,"  the 
writer  says,  "  is  unexampled  in  the  historj''  of  yellow 
fever  in  the  United   States. 

The  Board  of  Health  in  its  report  notices  that  of  65 
persons,  residents  of  the  upper  part  of  the  city,*  who 
visited  the  sickly  district,  34  died,  showing  a  diminished 
proportion  of  mortality.  Doctor  Pascalis  remarks  upon 
this  :  "  Since,  therefore,  it  exhibited  a  greater  degree  of 
malignity  in  one  part  of  the  city  than  in  another,  and 
precisely  in  that  district  which  is  termed  the  cleanest  and 
healthiest,  we  must  necessarily  conclude  that  it  was 
aggravated  by  local  circumstances.  Again,  in  these  nar- 
row, central,  and  more  confined  streets — William,  Maiden 
Lane,  Stone,  and  Dutch,  no  more  than  one-third  of  the 
sick  fell  victims.     In  three  houses  and   three   families  in 


The  city  did  not  extend  above  Canal  street. 


GRAVES  IN  NEW  YORK.  99 

Dutch,  Maiden  Lane  and  Nassau,  thirteen  persons  have 
sickened ;  seven  were  reported  and  all  have  recovered. 
The  milder  nature  of  these  cannot  certainly  be  accounted 
for  but  by  their  distance  from  their  primary  focus  of 
infection." 

There  were  other  graveyards  and  vaults  in  proxim- 
ity to  that  of  Trinity.  The  South  Reformed  Church 
having  a  space  of  25,000  square  feet  in  Garden  street, 
which  was  narrow  and  confined  ;  and  Wall  Street  Church, 
covering  with  the  building  20,000  square  feet,  nearly  the 
whole  of  which  was  excavated  for  vaults,  and  an  addi- 
tional range  constructed  under  the  sidewalk.  Between 
Pine  and  Cedar  streets  were  the  burying  grounds  of  the 
Associate    Reformed  -and   French  Protestant   Churches. 

The  Middle  Dutch  Church  Cemetery  was  a  consider- 
able place  of  interment  and  appropriated  to  vaults ;  as  also 
St.  Paul's  Church  and  the  North  Dutch  Church,  in  Fulton 
street.  St.  Paul's  was  contiguous  to  Broadway.  The 
monuments  now  standing  in  it  bear  testimony  to  its  being 
the  resting  place  of  large  numbers  of  the  dead.  Nearly 
opposite  to  it  was  the  cemetery  of  Brick  Church,  which, 
in  1823  was  entirely  filled.  Pascalis,  in  commenting  upon 
these,  and  other  burial  places  which  he  makes  "  of  less 
account,"  says  "  there  is,  as  all  know,  at  the  slightest  com- 
putation, ten  acres  or  500,000  square  feet  of  ground  in 
the  city  exclusively  appropriated  to  interments  in  graves 
or  vaults.  *  *  *  We  will  take  the  subject  in  another 
point  of  view,  to  ascertain  whether  the  space  thus  em- 


100  GRAVES  IN  NEW  YORK. 

ployed  may  endanger  the  health  of  the  inhabitants.  On 
the  authority  of  observation  and  experience,  it  *  *  * 
takes  more  than  ten  years  for  the  entire  decay  of  the 
human  frame  in  graves,  and  a  much  longer  time  than  that 
in  vaults.  *  "^  *  The  yearly  bills  of  mortality  at  the 
city  inspector's  office  for  the  last  eleven  years  amount  to 
33,945.  We  have  here  then,  a  total  of  33,945  dead  bodies 
dispersed  and  accumulated  within  an  area  of  three  miles, 
during  eleven  years  and  a  half,  all  still  under  the  decom- 
posing operation  of  nature,  and  diffusing,  in  the  warm 
season,  their  volatile  exhalations  in  the  air  we  must 
respire."  Doctor  Barrow  says  of  them  :  "  They  (the 
graveyards)  are  saturated  with  materials  hostile  to  human 
life."  In  a  work  published  prior  to  1823  is  the  following 
warning  :  "  Avoid  as  much  as  possible  living  near  church- 
yards. The  putrid  emanations  arising  from  churchyards 
are  very  dangerous ;  and  parish  churches,  in  which  many 
corpses  are  interred,  become  impregnated  with  air  so  cor- 
rupted, especially  in  spring  when  the  ground  begins  to 
grow  warm,  that  it  is  prudent  to  avoid  this  evil,  as  it  may 
be,  and  in  some  cases  has  been,  one  of  the  chief  sources 
of  putrid  fevers,  which  are  so  prevalent  at  that  season." 

The  following  personal  experience  of  a  resident  of  New 
York  was  given  to  Doctor  Ackerly,  in  a  letter  from  New- 
burg,  July  7,  1823:  "  During  the  summers  of  1816,  1817, 
I  resided  at  39  Liberty  street,  directly  opposite  the 
churchyard.  In  the  hot  months,  whenever  a  vault  was 
opened  on  the  side  of  the  yard  next  to  my  residence,  a 


INSECTS  FROM  A  REVOLUTIONARY   PIT.  lOI 

very  offensive  stench  was  emitted  from  the  vault,  to  such 
a  degree  that  we  were  compelled  to  shut  the  door  and 
windows  looking  into  the  yard.  Being  frequently 
annoyed  by  this  nuisance,  I  remonstrated  with  the  sexton 
against  his  opening  the  vaults  in  the  morning  and  per- 
mitting them  to  remain  open  during  the  day,  to  the 
annoyance  of  the  neighborhood.  His  reply  was  that  it 
would  be  as  much  as  his  life  was  worth  to  go  into  the 
vault  until  it  had  stood  open  some  time  to  air.  I  applied 
to  the  Mayor  to  correct  the  proceedings.  He  said  it  was 
a  subject  of  so  much  feeling  with  the  citizens  that  the 
corporation  would  not  interfere  to  regulate  interments. 

"  In  the  summer  of  one  of  the  years  I  have  mentioned, 
the  trustees  of  the  church  made  some  repairs  to  it,  and 
built  a  porch  to  each  of  the  eastern  doors  next  to  Liberty 
street.  In  digging  for  the  foundation  of  the  southeast 
porch,  next  to  the  sugar  house,  they  came  upon  the  great 
grave  in  which  had  been  buried  those  who  died  in  this 
sugar-house  while  it  was  occupied  as  a  prison  during  a 
period  of  the  revolution.  The  grave  was  deep  and  spa- 
cious, and  it  became  necessary,  in  order  to  get  at  the  solid 
earth  for  the  foundation  of  the  porch,  to  disinter  a  great 
quantity  of  the  remains  of  those  who  had  been  buried 
there.  Several  cartloads  were  taken  up  and  carried  away. 
During  this  operation  the  air  of  the  churchyard  and  its 
vicinity  swarmed  with  myriads  of  little  black  flies,  very 
troublesome.  They  filled  our  house,  covering  the  side- 
board,  furniture,  and   every  article  on  which  they  could 


THE 

NEWBERRY 

UIPRARY 

C  H  I  C  ."  ;:  o 


102  VAULT   EMANATIONS. 

alight.  Even  closing  the  doors  did  not  entirely  relieve 
us  from  their  annoyance."* 

Co-incident  with  the  above,  the  Medical  Repository  gives 
the  experience  of  a  person  who,  on  the  19th  of  August, 
18 10,  when  the  thermometer  noted  88°,  attended  the 
funeral  of  one  whose  remains  were  laid  in  the  public  vault 
of  this  same  church.  He  stated  that  he  was  never  so 
sensible  of  a  cadaverous  foetor.  The  effluvia  from  the 
dead  corpses  was  so  offensive  that  he  and  many  others 
were  obliged  to  retreat  from  its  mouth.  In  depositing  a 
corpse  in  one  of  the  vaults  in  the  Brick  Church,  Beekman 
street,  the  sexton  cautioned  the  attendants  to  "stand  on 
one  side ;  you  are  not  accustomed  to  such  smells."  Mr. 
DeGroadt,  the  sexton  of  the  Dutch  Church  above  noted, 
frequently  remarked  that,  in  descending  into  the  vaults, 
candles  lose  their  lustre,  and  that  the  air  is  so  sour  and 
pungent  that  it  stung  his  nose.  The  Journal  says : 
"  This  being  the  case  with  all  the  vaults  where  dead 
bodies  are  deposited,  and  subject  to  be  opened  at  all 
seasons,  this  method  of  disposing  of  the  remains  of  our 
friends  is,  at  the  best,  an  unpleasant  and  certainly  a  dan- 
gerous one." 

The  writer  records  an  incident  of  his  own  observation. 


*This  phenomenon  occurred  at  least  thirty -five  years  after  the  interments. 
\^Vid.  Doctor  Render's  narrative  in  a  former  part  of  this  treatise.)  History  in- 
forms us  that  after  the  mob  at  Paris,  in  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  broke 
into  the  vaults  of  the  Kings,  and  broke  open  the  coffins  for  plunder,  tliey  were 
overcome  and  sickened  by  the  poisonous  emanations  from  the  coffin  of  Francis  I, 
who  died  in  1537.     He  liad  been  then  buried  two  and  a  half  centuries. 


VAULT    EMANATIONS.  I03 

occurring  in  a  family  to  which  he  is  remotely  allied.  A 
family  in  New  York  who  had  purchased  a  lot  in  Green- 
wood and  there  buried  many  of  their  dead,  was  desirous 
of  transferring  the  body  of  an  honored  ancestor  from  a 
vault  where  it  reposed  in  a  town  in  Connecticut  to  their 
own  burial  plot  in  Greenwood.  Two  members  of  the 
family  circle,  one  a  clergyman,  the  other  a  lawyer,  under- 
took to  conduct  the  details  of  the  transfer.  They  were 
both  healthy  men,  in  the  usual  vigor  of  early  manhood. 
They  both  entered  the  vault.  They  found  it  to  be  very 
foul.  One  of  them  fainted  ;  the  other  suffered  much,  but 
persevered  in  superintending  the  process  of  removal. 
The  one  who  fainted — the  clergyman — became  sickly 
from  that  moment,  and  died  in  about  two  years,  suffering 
during  those  years  with  a  broken  down  constitution. 
The  other  lost  from  the  same  date  the  vigor  of  his  health. 
He  lived  for  several  years  and  then  died.  Their  memory 
is  cherished  by  those  who  survive  them  all  the  more,  in 
that  they  had  sacrificed  their  lives  in  a  work  prompted 
chiefly  by  a  desire  to  gratify  their  family  kindred. 

The  Board  of  Health  in  the  City  of  New  York,  in  1806, 
appointed  a  committee  to  report  on  measures  necessary 
to  secure  the  public  health.  The  following  extract  from 
the  report,  which  was  drawn  by  Doctor  Edward  Miller, 
is  appropriate  in  this  place  : 

"That  interments  of  dead  bodies  within  the  city  07(g]it 
to  be  prohibited.  A  vast  mass  of  decaying  animal  matter 
produced  by    the   superstition    of  interring  dead  bodies 


I04        STATE    LAW    FOR   THE   CITY   OF  NEW   YORK. 

near  the  churches,  and  which  has  been  accuinulatincr  for 
a  long  lapse  of  time,  is  now  deposited  in  many  of  the 
most  populous  parts  of  the  city.  It  is  impossible  that 
such  a  quantity  of  animal  remains,  even  if  placed  at  the 
greatest  depth  of  interment  commonly  practised,  should 
continue  to  be  inoffensive  and  safe.  It  is  difficult,  if  not 
impracticable,  to  determine  to  what  distance  around,  the 
matter  extricated  during  the  progress  of  putrefaction  may 
spread  ;  and  by  pervading  the  ground,  tainting  the  waters 
and  perhaps  emitting  noxious  exhalations  into  the  atmos- 
phere, do  great  mischief.  But  if  it  should  be  decided  still 
to  persist  in  the  practice  of  interments  within  the  city,  it 
ought  to  be  judged  necessary  to  order  the  envelopment 
of  the  bodies  in  some  species  of  calcareous  earth,  either 
quicklime  or  chalk.  *  *  *  This  growing  evil  must 
be  corrected  at  some  period,  for  it  is  increasing  and  ex- 
tending by  daily  aggregation  to  a  mass  already  very  large, 
and  the  sooner  it  is  arrested  the  less  violence  will  be 
done  to  the  feelings  and  habits  of  our  fellow-citizens." 

This  report,  upon  being  sent  to  the  Legislature  with  a 
memorial  upon  the  subject,  resulted  in  the  passage  of  a 
law  authorizing  the  corporation  of  the  City  of  New  York 
to  prohibit  interments  within  its  limits.  The  law  was 
afterwards  incorporated  into  the  general  statutes  of  the 
State.  It  was  not  till  1823  that  the  Common  Council  of 
New  York  passed  a  prohibitory  ordinance  upon  the  sub- 
ject, and  when  passed  it  was  some  years  before  it  became 
operative. 


EFFECT  OF  OZONE.  105 

During  a  series  of  experiments  made  at  and  near  Bur- 
lington, Iowa,  in    185  1-2,  by  Raucli,*  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the    relation    which    ozone    held    to  certain 
epidemic   diseases,  he   says   that   "  he   could  not  usually 
detect   its  presence  where   any  considerable  amount   of 
animal  or  vegetable  matter  was  undergoing  rapid  decom- 
position.     It  was  not  until  the  weather  became  very  cold 
that  he  could   detect   its  presence  within  the  cemetery 
enclosure  or  in   the  immediate  vicinity  of  slaughter  or 
packing-houses."     "  In  the  same  proportion  as  the  pres- 
ence of  ozone  was  found   everywhere,   certain  types  of 
disease    diminished."       His    observations    have   satisfied 
him   that   ozone   exists  more  abundantly  in  the  atmos- 
phere— other    conditions    being    the    same — after    than 
before  a  thunder  storm,  and  that,  according  to  the  degree 
of  its    electrical  disturbance.      During  the  prevalence  of 
the  cholera  at  Burlington,  in  1850,  the  weather  was  very 
hot   and    oppressive.     On    the    i6th    of  July   a  thunder 
storm   occurred,   accompanied    by   a   heavy   fall  of  rain. 
The    epidemic    immediately   abated.       One    case    only 
occurred  on  that  day  ;  the  number  of  new  cases  dimin- 
ished.    The  observations  of  the  writer,  for  which  he  can 
furnish  abundant  data,  lead  him  to  say  :  "  There  is  no 
room  for  doubt  that  ozone  is  a  purifier  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  that  anything,  no  matter  what,  which  diminishes  the 


*  "  Intra-mural  Interments  in  Populous  Cities  and  their  Influence  upon  Health 
and  Epidemics,  by  John  H.  Rauch,  M.  D.     Chicago,  1866." 
14 


I06         PUTRID   EMANATIONS   CAUSE   PESTILENCE. 

normal  amount  of  ozone  acts  injuriously  upon  man  and 
animals." 

"  Reasoning,  therefore,  from  a  purely  chemical,  physio- 
logical and  philosophical  standpoint,  we  are  fully  war- 
ranted in  making  the  assertion  that  the  emanations  of 
human  remains  frequently  result  in  disease,  increase  the 
ravages  of  epidemics,  in  many  instances  act  as  the  excit- 
ing causes  of  them  and  diminish  life."  As  illustrating 
his  statement,  he  notices  among  others  which  have  here- 
tofore been  noticed  in  this  treatise,  that  the  opening  of  a 
corpse  at  Leictourne  occasioned  a  grievous  epidemic  on 
the  plain  of  Armagnac.  At  Riorm,  in  Auvergne,  they 
were  removing  the  earth  from  an  old  burying-ground  for 
purposes  of  embellishment ;  soon  after,  an  epidemic  dis- 
ease carried  off  many,  particularly  of  the  lower  classes, 
who  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cemetery.  At  Aubert 
Haller,  a  church  became  infected  from  a  single  corpse 
after  twelve  years'  interment,  in  consequence  of  which  all 
the  members  of  a  convent  were  attacked  with  a  danger- 
ous malady. 

We  draw  from  Rauch's  excellent  monograph  the  fol- 
lowing valuable  testimony :  In  a  report  of  the  yellow 
fever  of  1838-39,  which  occurred  at  Charleston,  it  was 
attributed  to  domestic  origin,  viz.  :  the  decomposition  of 
animal  and  vegetable  matter.  The  report  recommended 
the  burial  of  the  dead  beyond  the  precincts  of  the  city. 

In  a  report  of  epidemic  yellow  fever  as  it  occurred  in 
British  Guiana  in  1852-53,  Dr.  Blair  says:  "  The  poison- 


YELLOW  FEVER   IN  NEW  ORLEANS.  I07 

ous  agent  persisted  in  its  predilection  for  damp,  low, 
crowded  places  and  the  neighborhood  of  putrid  exhala- 
tions, and  woe  to  the  unwary  or  reckless  who  lived  or 
lingered  in  such  places  or  were  exposed  to  such  exhala- 
tions." 

Report  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  on  the  Epidemic 
Yellow  Fever  of  i8^j,  in  New  Orleans^  by  Dr.  E.  H.  Barton. 
In  looking  over  the  sanitary  map  accompanying  this 
report,  it  appears  that  the  Fourth  District  suffefed  more 
than  double  that  of  any  other,  the  mortality  being  at 
the  rate  of  452  per  1,000  of  the  population.  In  this  dis- 
trict three  extensive  cemeteries  exist,  in  which  were 
buried  the  year  before  nearly  three  thousand  bodies.  It 
was  in  one  of  these  that  the  offensive  exposure  of  bodies 
occurred,  so  painful  to  the  public.  In  the  First  ward  of 
this  district  was  a  series  of  low,  crowded  and  filthy  pest- 
houses,  inhabited  by  the  lowest  class  of  people.  The 
proportion  of  deaths  here  was  542  per  1,000. 

The  next  in  mortality  was  the  Third,  containing  all  the 
cemeteries  and  most  of  the  vacheries.  The  proportion 
here  was  508  per  1,000. 

The  First  District  comes  next  ;  the  ratio  to  the  whole 
population  was  234  per  1,000.  The  second  worse  ward 
in  this  district  is  the  Seventh,  in  which  are  the  Girod 
street  cemetery,  two  extensive  hospitals  and  the  gas- 
works. The  number  of  fatal  cases  in  it  was  394  per 
1 ,000. 

In  the  Second  District  we  have  87  cases  per  1,000. 


I08       YELLOW  FEVER  IN  NEW  ORLEANS. 

Ward  No.  2,  having  more  than  double  the  amount  of  the 
average  of  the  district,  or  173  per  1,000,  embraces  in  its 
limits  all  the  cemeteries  of  the  district,  in  which  were 
buried  that  year  1,163  bodies. 

The  Third  District  shows  114  fatal  cases  to  the  1,000. 
In  noting  the  causes  of  the  mortality  in  this  district, 
much  of  it  is  attributed  to  the  polluting  air  of  a  cemetery 
in  which  were  buried  during  the  year  2,446  bodies. 

Doctor  Barton  says  :  "  There  is  probably  no  climate  in 
America  where  the  vicinage  of  cemeteries  would  and 
does  do  so  much  damage  to  public  health  as  here.  Rapid 
and  prolonged  decay  results  from  the  great  moisture  of 
the  climate  and  small  desiccative  power.  Burying  almost 
universally  above  ground  (in  the  cemeteries  of  the  city), 
the  mortar  connecting  the  brick-work  soon  splits,  giving 
exit  to  injurious  exhalations  from  the  within  decomposi- 
sitions.  The  force  of  the  gases  (and  especially  under  the 
augmented  temperature  of  the  summer,  when  they  are 
the  most  injurious),  is  often  so  very  great  as  sometimes  to 
burst  the  leaden  coffins,  and  always  to  escape  through  the 
pores  of  the  wooden  ones,  and  to  split  the  metallic  ones, 
and  the  brick  and  plaster  work  of  the  vaults,  contaminat- 
ing the  atmosphere  for  a  great  distance  around.  In  no 
case  then,  if  permitted  in  cities,  should  a  dwelling  be 
permitted  nearer  to  these  yards  than  several  hundred 
paces,  according  to  the  frequency  of  interment." 

The  entire  commission  unite  in  the  recommendation 
that  "  the  present  cemeteries  within  the  city  limits  should 
by  all  means  be  closed  against  future  use." 


YELLOW  FEVER  IN  NORFOLK.         IO9 

Doctor  Bryant,  on  yellow  fever  at  Norfolk  and  Ports- 
mouth in  1855  {Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.  Ap.  1856),  after  giv- 
ing a  history  of  the  epidemic  and  its  terribly  fatal  results, 
and  offering  some  suggestions  upon  a  future  correct 
hygiene,  says  : 

"  The  last  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  suggestions  relates  to  the  remains  of  the 
dead.  They  can  scarcely  be  said  to  rest  beneath  the  sod. 
They  lie  in  tiers,  and  some  of  them,  from  the  sad  neces- 
sity of  the  case,  uncofifined,  while  but  a  thin  stratum  of 
sabulous  earth  separates  them  from  the  water  below  and 
the  superincumbent  air.  The  average  depth  of  the  graves 
is  about  four  feet,  the  deepest  five,  and  in  many  of  them 
three  bodies  are  placed,  one  upon  the  other.  When  the 
summer's  sun  shall  pour  its  rays  down  upon  this  decaying 
mass,  can  it  be  otherwise  than  that  their  noxious  gases 
will  commingle  with  the  purer  air,  and  sooner  or  later  aid 
in  reproducing  other  harvests  of  disease  and  death. 
*  *  *  I  am  aware  that  it  is  affirmed  by  some  that 
animal  decomposing  matter  is  not  deleterious.  This  is 
far  from  being  established  by  sufficient  facts.  The  rem- 
edy here  indicated  is  the  disinterment  of  the  dead,  and 
their  removal  to  a  distance  of  not  less  than  eight  miles 
from  either  city.  It  is  the  total  forbidding  of  intra-mural 
or  even  near-by  suburban  cemeteries." 


no  ASIATIC   CHOLERA. 


ASIATIC    CHOLERA. 


Next  to  yellow  fever  the  cliolera  is  the  epidemic  most 
dreaded  in  this  country.  It  is  in  truth  more  to  be 
dreaded,  as  the  fever  is  more  or  less  limited  to  sections, 
while  all  parts  of  the  United  States  are  liable  to  an  inva- 
sion of  Asiatic  cholera. 

A  very  significant  lesson  upon  the  spread  of  this  disease 
may  be  drawn  from  the  study  of  its  origin  and  progress 
in  India  and  Asia. 

It  is  well  known  that  outbreaks  of  the  disease  occur 
especially  in  the  province  of  Bengal  every  year,  more 
particularly  every  third,  sixth,  ninth  and  twelfth  year,  in 
connection  with  the  great  pilgrimages  to  Juggernaut, 
Hurdwar,  and  their  affiliated  shrines.  The  influence  of 
the  Juggernaut  pilgrimages,  or  of  the  Worshipers  of 
Shiva,  the  Destroyer,  can  be  traced  from  1781  through 
the  great  twelve  year  epidemics  of  1817,  1829,  1841,  1853, 
and  1865  in  India,  stretching  north  to  Calcutta  and  south 
to  Madras,  on  the  east  coast  of  Hindostan,  while  the 
influence  of  the  pressure  of  the  adorers  of  Vishnu  to 
Hurdwar  in  the  north  of  India,  and  to  numberless  other 
sanctuaries,  may  be  seen  in  the  great  outbreaks  of  1819, 
1831,  1843,  1855,  and  1869  in  India  and  adjoining  places.* 


*"  Report  of  Jno.  C.  Peters,  M.    D.,   in   Cholera  Epidemic  of  1873  in  the 
United  States,  by  Jno.  M.  Woodworth,  M.  D.,"  1875. 


PESTILENCE  FROM   PILGRIMAGES.  Ill 

Every  year,  particularly  at  the  great  festivals,  the 
pilgrims  flock  in  crowds  to  the  Juggernaut  temple.  It  is 
calculated  that  there  are  at  least  1,200,000  of  them  an- 
nually, of  whom,  it  is  said,  nine  out  of  ten  die  on  the  road 
of  famine,  hardship  and  sickness.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  country  for  miles  around  the  sacred  place  is 
covered,  with  human  bones.  Many  old  persons  undertake 
the  pilgrimage  that  they  may  die  on  holy  ground.  Not 
far  from  the  temple  is  a  place  called  by  the  Europeans 
Golgotha,  where  the  corpses  are  thrown,  and  dogs  and 
vultures  are  always  feeding  on  the  carrion.* 

Epidemiologists  have  concluded  that  the  presence, 
persistence  and  recurring  activity  of  cholera  in  Persia  is 
owing  to  its  central  location  between  India  and  Europe, 
exposing  it  to  frequent  importation  and  invasion,  which 
scarcely  allows  one  outbreak  to  subside  before  another  is 
introduced.  But  a  similar  effect  of  pilgrimages  seems 
manifest  in  Persia  as  in  India.  From  Bassorah,  near  the 
united  mouths  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  disease 
is  frequently  carried  by  pilgrims  to  the  holy  shrines  of 
Kerbala  (Meshid  Hossein)  and  Nedjef  (Meschid  Ali),  just 
south  of  Bagdad.  From  W.  A.  Shephard's  book,  "  From 
Bombay  to  Bushire  and  Bassorah,"  we  learn  that  Bas- 
sorah, at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  has  many  pilgrim 
boats,  which  are  always  crowded  with  the  living  and  the 
dead  going  up  to  Kerbala  and  Nedjef.     The  living  car- 

*  Ency.  Am. 


112  CHOLERA    FROM    PII.riRI MACKS. 

goes,  consisting  of  men,  women  and  children,  are  huddled 
together  like  pigs,  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  being  crowded  together  in  a  space  forty  feet  by 
twenty,  with  twenty-five  or  more  dead  bodies  piled  about. 
As  these  pilgrim-boats  passed  or  went  to  windward  the 
scent  was  anything  but  pleasant,  and  it  was  difficult  to 
say  whether  the  living  or  the  dead  were  most  disagreea- 
bly fragrant.  Then  the  Arabs  living  along  the  shores  of 
the  rivers  not  only  stop  the  vessels  and  rob  the  living, 
but  also  take  and  hold  the  dead  bodies  in  pawn  till  the 
price  they  set  upon  them  is  paid  by  the  sorrowing  rela- 
tives, who  believe  that  their  own  souls  and  those  of  their 
dead  relatives  will  never  reach  paradise  unless  they  get 
their  bodies  to  the  tombs  of  Hossein  or  Ali,  at  Kerbala 
or  Nedjef.  At  the  two  latter  places,  and  at  Meschid 
Reza,  the  gorgeous  mosques  are  hardly  less  sacred  to  the 
various  sects  of  Mohammedans  than  is  the  mosque  at 
Mecca.  "  They  are,"  says  the  London  Lancet,  "probably 
the  most  important  fostering  places  of  cholera  in  North 
and  South  Persia  ;  for  they  are  burial  places  of  Hossein, 
Ali  and  the  Imam  Reza,  the  three  most  highly-rated 
saints  next  to  Mohammed.  To  their  shrines  not  less 
than  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  pilgrims  flock 
annually  from  Persia  and  India,  bringing  with  them 
many  hundred  corpses  in  all  stages  of  decomposition,  for 
interment  in  the  sacred  soil  of  these  great  holy  cities." 

The  pilgrim   caravans  arc   described  as  a  sea  of  long, 
black  boxes  surging  by  on  scores  of  mules  and  camels. 


CHOLERA  FROM    PILGRIMAGES.  II 3 

Each  animal  is  laden  with  two  of  these  mysterious 
objects,  one  on  each  side.  Many  of  them  are  so  loosely 
nailed  together  that  another  sense  than  that  of  sight  soon 
convinces  the  beholder  that  they  are  cofifins.  In  fact,  they 
contain  the  putrefying  bodies  of  the  devout,  who,  having 
died  in  the  true  Mohammedan  faith,  are  now  being  taken 
for  burial  in  holy  ground  at  Meschid,  Kerbela  or  Nedjef. 
They  are  often  carried  hundreds  of  miles,  and  a  sickening 
stench  always  comes  up  from  their  gaping  seams,  causing 
nausea  and  faintness  in  the  drowsy  and  unsuspecting 
traveller,  who  finds  it  impossible  to  extricate  himself 
promptly  from  their  disgusting  contact  with  apparently 
no  limit  to  their  numbers. 

The  Lancet,  in  another  number,  says  that  for  several 
years  previous  to  1870,  outbreaks  of  cholera  at  Teheran 
had  almost  invariably  followed  the  arrival  of  the  pilgrims 
and  the  annual  exhumation  of  bodies  for  transportation 
to  their  holy  places.  The  epidemic  was  very  virulent  in 
Teheran  in  1870.  It  commenced  at  the  caravanserais 
near  the  principal  gates  of  the  city,  as  if  coming  from 
pilgrims  and  travelers,  and  rapidly  extended  into  the 
town  in  various  directions.  This  outbreak  was  again 
attributed  to  the  exhumation  of  bodies  preceding  the 
annual  pilgrimages  to  Kerbala  and  Merschid,  for  not  less 
than  three  hundred  were  dug  up  at  Teheran. 

Trinity  churchyard,  New  York,  has  been  the  centre  of 
a  very  fatal  prevalence  of  cholera  whenever  the  disease 


114       CHOLERA  AND  PLAGUE  FROM  PUTRID  MIASM. 

has  occurred  as  an  endemic  near  or  within  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  of  it.  Trinity  place,  west  of  it  ;  Rector  street,  on 
its  border ;  the  streets  west  of  Rector,  and  the  occupants 
of  the  neighboring  offices  and  commercial  houses,  have 
suffered  severely  at  each  visitation  of  the  pest,  from  1832 
to  1854.     Letter  of  Elisha  Harris,  M.  D. 

During  the  prevalence  of  the  cholera  at  Burlington, 
Iowa,  in  July,  1850,  a  number  of  the  dead  were  interred 
in  the  city  cemetery.  No  deaths  occurred  in  its  neigh- 
borhood until  about  twenty  had  been  buried  there. 
After  this,  until  the  epidemic  ceased,  cases  occurred,  and 
always  in  the  direction  from  the  cemetery  in  which  the 
wind  blew.     Dr.  Ranch. 

The  excavations  made  for  sewers  where  the  victims  of 
the  plague  of  1665  were  buried,  increased  the  virulence 
of  the  cholera  in  London  in  1854.  The  authorities  had 
been  warned  of  this  probable  result  by  Mr.  Simon.  Dr. 
Playfair  believes  that  the  prevalent  fever  in  Rome  is  due 
to  the  exhalations  from  the  soil,  which  is  saturated  with 
organic  matter.  "  It  is  impossible  for  anyone  to  say  how 
long  the  materies  morbi  may  continue  to  live  under 
ground.  If  organic  matter  can  be  boiled  and  frozen 
without  losing  vitality,  and  seeds  3,000  years  old  will 
sprout  when  planted,  it  would  be  hardihood  to  assert 
that  the  poison  of  cholera  or  small-pox  (or  typhus),  what- 
ever it  is,  may  not  for  years  lie  dormant,  but  not  dead,  in 
the  moisture  and  temperature  of  the  grave."  Buck's 
Hygiene. 


ORIGIN  OF    PESTILENCE   IN  THE   EAST.  I15 

PESTILENCE. 

Pestilence  is  a  terrible,  perhaps  the  most  terrible, 
scourge  of  the  human  race.  The  Hebrews  in  Egypt  said 
to  Pharaoh  "  let  us  go  *  *  *  and  sacrifice  unto  the 
Lord  our  God,  lest  He  fall  upon  us  with  the  pestilence." 
The  Psalmist  of  Israel  said  of  the  dealings  of  Jehovah 
with  His  chosen  people,  He  "  gave  their  life  over  to  the 
pestilence  and  smote  all  the  first-born  of  Egypt," 

Natural  causes  are  at  times  operative,  and  always  have 
been,  to  promote  epidemic  disease.  The  condition  was 
called  by  Hippocrates  a  constitution  of  the  air.  We  have 
no  better  term  for  it  now.  The  great  national  pestilences, 
plague  and  cholera,  have  had  their  rise  in  the  east  and 
have  progressed  westward.  They  seem  to  be  periodical 
or  cycloid  in  their  character,  which  is  also  true  of  the 
type  of  our  ordinary  diseases,  undergoing,  as  they  do, 
changes  in  long  cycles  of  years. 

The  origin  and  causes  of  pestilence  are  occult.  We 
have  no  reason  to  believe  that  they  will  not,  to  some 
degree,  always  be  concealed.  The  pestilence  "  walketh 
in  darkness."  He  who  "  hath  gathered  the  wind  in  His 
fist,"  holds  the  supreme  control  of  the  hidden  forces  of 
nature.  Nevertheless,  He  has  endowed  His  creatures 
with  powers  to  perceive  and  with  intellect  to  study  their 
modes  of  operation,  that  they  may  use  their  knowledge 
for  their  own  protection,  and  thus  put  away  from  them 


Il6  PLAGUE  IN  EGYPT. 

the  larger  share  of  the  natural  evils  which  are  sources  of 
suffering  and  afifliction.* 

A  candid  and  careful  consideration  of  the  facts  which 
have  now  been  presented,  cannot  fail,  we  think,  to  con- 
vince any  one  of  the  necessity  of  accepting  them  as  a 
warning  against  shutting  our  eyes  to  their  light,  and 
against  cherishing  longer  in  our  crowded  communities  the 
enormous  evil  of  INTRA-MURAL  INTERMENTS.  It  is  not 
the  great  pestilences  only  which  are  promoted  and  inten- 
sified by  them.  The  testimony  before  us  shows  that  our 
ordinary  endemics,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  and  the  minor 
diseases  of  children,  become  epidemic  and  widely  fatal, 


*  There  is  nothing  in  the  mere  climate  of  Egypt  that  will  account  for  the  spon- 
taneous origin  and  spread  of  the  plague.  Its  development  may  be  reasonably 
attributed  to  hygienic  conditions.  Its  inhabitants  create  the  causes  of  their  own 
destruction.  The  destitution,  filth  and  misery  of  the  poor  are  extreme.  Their 
wretched  hovels  are  so  horribly  disgusting  as  to  defy  description.  They  are  the 
receptacles  of  heaps  of  ordure  and  putrid  matters.  Not  unfrequently  the  dead 
are  buried  under  the  mud  floors  of  the  dwellings  of  the  living.  Many  of  the 
graves  in  the  cemeteries  (which  are  always  within  the  villages)  being  left  open, 
are  continually  exhaling  a  stench  which  is  intolerable  to  any  stranger.  The 
hygienic  state  of  the  cities  and  larger  towns  is  not  much  better  than  that  of  the 
villages.  Cairo,  with  its  200,000  inhabitants,  is  a  very  hot-bed  of  the  most  dis- 
gusting and  pestiferous  impurities.  The  canal  which  traverses  it  constantly 
steams  forth  a  cloud  of  intolerable  offensiveness.  There  are  thirty-five  cemete- 
ries, of  which  twenty-five  are  within  the  walls.  In  the  Copt  quarter  of  the  town 
the  dead  are  buried  under  the  floors  of  the  houses,  and  nothing  but  a  few  boards 
separate  the  living  from  the  putrid  bodies  of  the  dead.  From  eighty  to  ninety 
corpses  have  been  known  to  be  huddled  together  in  these  sub-domal  receptacles. 
The  plague  has  never  been  known  to  appear  spontaneously  in  Egypt  except  in 
places  and  seasons  where  these  most  pernicious  agencies  are  at  work. 

All  the  producing  causes  of  this  terrible  disease  being  found  united  in  Lower 
Egypt,  it  is  there  endemic.  It  is  seen  every  year  in  the  sporadic,  and  about 
every  tenth  year  in  the  epidemic  form. 

The  hygienic  reforms  necessary  in  modern  Egj'pt  are  sanitary  methods  to 
counteract  the  evils  of  animal  putrefaction.  Rep.  of  the  Royal  Acad,  of  Med., 
Paris,  1846,  in  Med.  Chi.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1846. 


RURAL  CEMETERIES.  II7 

by  the  same  influences.  It  is  "  sufficient  to  prove  conclu- 
sively the  truth  of  the  chemical,  physiological,  and  patho- 
logical deductions  arrived  at  in  the  consideration  of  the 
subject ;  and  that  the  same  laws  hold  good  in  all  import- 
ant epidemic  visitations,  no  matter  in  what  quarter  of  the 
globe,  and  under  what  circumstances  they  have  ap- 
peared."    Ranch. 

RURAL   CEMETERIES. 

Cemeteries  extra-mural,  in  our  own  country,  have  been 
commending  themselves  to  the  popular  favor  for  the  last 
fifty  years.  Considerations  for  the  public  safety  and 
health,  doubtless,  have  had  their  effect,  but  their  moral 
influences  more.  The  retirement  they  afford  to  surviving 
friends  in  their  visits  to  the  graves  of  loved  ones ;  the 
quiet  precincts  of  the  sacred  place,  made  beautiful  by  the 
embellishments  of  artistic  tillage  and  the  inspiration  of 
natural  scenery,  combine  to  make  attractive  and  sacred 
the  city  of  the  dead.  They  become  places  of  respectful 
and  reverent  resort.  In  our  own,  as  in  other  countries, 
they  have  the  effect  of  soothing  the  grief  of  surviving 
friends,  and  in  refining  the  sentiments  of  the  communities 
where  they  are  established.  At  Constantinople  the  place 
of  promenade  for  Europeans  is  the  cemetery  at  Pera, 
which  is  planted  with  cypress,  and  has  a  delightful  site 
on  the  side  of  a  hill  overlooking  the  Golden  Horn.  The 
greatest  public  cemetery  attached  to  that  capital  is  at 
Scutari,  which  forms  a  beautiful  grove,   and  vies  in  its 


Il8  CEMETERIES   IN   RUSSIA   AND    GERMANY. 

attractions  to  readers,  with  the  fountains  and  cloisters  of 
the  mosques. 

In  Russia,  ahuost  every  town  of  importance  has  its 
burial  place,  at  a  distance  from  the  town,  laid  out  by  the 
architect  of  the  government.  It  is  always  well  planted 
with  trees,  and  is  frequently  ornamented  with  good 
sculpture.  Nearly  every  German  town  has  its  cemetery 
at  a  suitable  distance,  planted  with  trees  and  ornamented 
with  public  and  private  monuments,  though  most  of  them 
have  some  choice  works  of  art  or  public  memorials  which 
alone  would  make  them  objects  of  attraction.  At  Saxe 
Weimar,  the  cemetery  contains  the  tombs  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  placed  in  the  mausoleum  of  the  ducal  family. 
In  Turkey,  Russia  and  Germany,  the  poorer  classes  have 
the  advantage  of  interment  in  the  national  cemeteries. 
In  Russia  it  is  the  practice  to  hold  festivals  twice  yearly 
over  the  graves  of  their  friends.  In  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many similar  customs  prevail.  At  Munich  the  festival  of 
All  Saints'  Day  is  described  as  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary spectacles  which  is  to  be  seen  in  Europe.  The 
tombs  are  decorated  in  a  most  remarkable  manner  with 
flowers  natural  and  artificial,  branches  of  trees,  canopies, 
pictures,  sculptures,  and  every  conceivable  thing  that  can 
be  applied  to  ornament  or  decoration.  During  the  whole 
of  the  night  preceding  the  holy  day.  the  relations  of  the 
dead  are  occupied  in  completing  the  decoration  of  the 
tombs,  and  during  the  whole  of  All  Saints'  Day  and  the  day 
following,  the  cemetery  is  visited  by  the  entire  population 


CEMETERIES   IN    THE   UNITED   STATES.  II9 

of  Munich,  including  the  King  and  Queen,  who  go  there 
on  foot,  and  by  many  strangers  from  distant  parts.  Mr. 
Louden  states  that  when  he  was  there  it  was  estimated 
that  50,000  persons  had  walked  round  the  cemetery  in  one 
day,  and  all,  with  very  few  exceptions,  dressed  in  black. 
We  have  made  this  record  to  illustrate  the  salutary  and 
refining  influence  of  a  rural  burying-place,  in  contrast 
with  the  confined,  offensive  and  health-polluting  grave- 
yard of  a  populous  city. 

The  cemetery  at  Boston — Mt.  Auburn — was  estab- 
lished in  183 1  ;  Laurel  Hill,  soon  after  ;  Greenwood,  N.  Y., 
in  1842.  Now,  the  most  of  our  larger  towns  have  their 
rural  repositories  for  the  dead,  though  too  many  of 
them  still  permit  burials  within  their  populated  limits. 

Such  being  the  popular  sentiment  in  regard  to  burials 
without  the  city,  it  has  become  a  question  of  the  highest 
importance  how  to  locate  them  and  what  methods  to 
adopt  in  their  management  and  in  all  their  mortuary 
requisites,  that  their  moral  influences  may  be  promoted 
and  the  best  sanitary  results  secured. 

In  the  Tenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Local  Government 
Board,  London,  1881,  upon  the  "  Sanitary  Requirements 
of  Cemeteries,"  it  is  pointed  out  that  a  cemetery,  accord- 
ing to  the  Public  Health  Act,  is  not  to  be  constructed 
nearer  any  dwelling-house  than  200  yards,  except  with 
the  consent  of  the  owner  or  occupiers.  The  prescribed 
minimum   distance   of  a  cemetery   in    France   from   the 


I20  SANITARY    REQUISITES   OF   CEMETERIES. 

nearest  habitation  is  icxd  metres  (109  yards),  and  it  is  not 
lawful,  without  special  permission,  to  build  any  house  or 
dig  any  well  within  that  distance  of  an  existing  cemetery. 
The  report  alluded  to  says  :  "  It  may  be  taken  that  a 
distance  of  200  yards  is  amply  sufificient  to  prevent  any 
injury  arising  to  health  from  a  well-kept  cemetery,  so  far 
as  regards  noxious  matters  transmitted  through  the  air. 
It  is,  however,  by  no  means  certain  that  cemeteries  estab- 
lished under  the  Public  Health  Act  will  in  all  cases,  and 
at  all  times,  be  distant  so  much  as  200  yards  from  the 
nearest  human  habitation.  With  the  consent  of  the 
owners  and  occupiers  of  existing  houses,  a  cemetery  may 
be  established  within  the  prescribed  limit ;  and  it  is  com- 
petent to  anyone  afterwards  to  erect  a  new  house  as  near 
to  the  cemetery  as  he  pleases.  It  does  not  appear  that 
the  amount  of  danger  to  health  to  be  feared  from  a 
proximity  to  a  well-kept  cemetery  is  large.  Since  intra- 
mural interment  has  been  abolished,  recorded  cases  of 
injury  to  health,  or  even  of  nuisance  arising  from  grave- 
yard emanations,  whether  conveyed  by  air  or  water,  are 
extremely  rare." 

The  most  suitable  distance  for  a  cemetery  will  var}''  in 
different  cases.  It  will  be  greater  in  the  case  of  a  large 
than  of  a  small  town  ;  greater,  also,  in  the  case  of  a  town 
larger  and  rapidly  extending  than  in  one  small  and 
stationary. 

The  site  should  be  elevated  sufficiently  above  the 
region   surrounding,  so  as  to   receive  the  benefit  of  free 


SANITARY   REQUISITES   OF   CEMETERIES.  121 

ventilation  by  the  winds,  which  should  have  an  unob- 
structed approach  to  it  from  all  points  of  the  compass. 
It  should  not  be  on  a  high  hill,  as  the  springs  of  water  at 
its  base  are  liable  to  contamination  from  its  drainage.* 

Its  surface  should  be  undulating,  but  not  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  cause  the  moisture  to  collect  in  the  low 
places,  unless  they  can  be  thoroughly  drained.  The 
undulations  of  the  surface  afford  opportunity  to  make 
the  place  more  attractive  by  the  arts  of  the  landscape 
gardener. 

Trees  should  be  cherished,  trimmed  from  below  and 
not  standing  too  densely.  Evergreens  should  not  abound 
if  they  feather  from  the  ground.  Hedges  of  arbor  vitse 
and  dense  shrubs  around  and  within  the  burial  plots 
ought  to  be  forbidden.  They  collect  and  hold  the 
noxious  gases  which  rise  from  beneath.  No  vegetation, 
however  beautiful  in  itself,  should  prevent  the  free  circula- 
tion  of  the  air  which  dilutes  the  emanations  from   the 


*  "  In  searching  for  cases  of  recent  date  of  disease  resulting  from  graveyard 
infection,  we  find  that  such  are  almost  unknown  to  medical  literature.  The  only 
marked  European  case  which  we  have  yet  discovered  is  that  mentioned  by  Pietra 
Santa,  of  the  villages  of  Rotendella  and  Ballita,  in  Italy.  The  cemeteries  of 
these  villages  were  at  the  summit  of  a  wooded  hill,  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  houses.  The  springs  from  which  the  water  was  obtained.were  at  the  foot  of 
the  hill,  and  ultimately  the  water  became  highly  contaminated.  A  severe  epi- 
demic which  recently  visited  these  villages  was  ascribed  to  the  use  of  this  impure 
water.  A  similar  case  occurred  during  the  past  year  in  Barbary,  as  an  incident 
of  the  plague  which  has  recently  visited  that  country.  The  people  of  a  certain 
village  lived  in  excavations  in  roclcs,  getting  tlieir  water  supply  from  wells  into 
which  water  had  run  from  the  cemetery  where  bodies  were  covered  only  a  foot 
deep  with  gravel.  Those  only  who  had  drank  of  this  impure  water  were  attacked 
with  the  plague."     /.  F.  A.  Adams,  M.  D.,  in  Report  of  Mass.  B.  of  Health,  1875. 

IS 


122  SOIL   BEST   ADAPTED   TO   CEMETERIES. 

graves  and  thus  renders  them  innocuous.  Trees  should 
never  be  allowed  to  impede  the  circulation  of  the  air  and 
the  free  access  of  the  winds  to  the  grounds. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  secure  the  rapid  progress  of 
decomposition  is  a  sandy  soil  or  a  sandy  loam,  with  a 
mixture  of  vegetable  mould.  Clay  retards  putrefaction 
and  holds  the  corpse  buried  in  it  through  a  long  series  of 
years.  A  dense  clay  is  laborious  to  work  and  difficult  to 
drain.  It  retains,  in  a  concentrated  state,  the  products 
of  decomposition,  sometimes  to  be  discharged  into 
graves  opened  in  their  vicinity,  or  sometimes  to  escape 
through  cracks  in  the  ground  to  the  surface.  A  district 
with  a  stony  sub-stratum  should  be  avoided.  The  loose, 
stony  soil  allows  the  passage  of  effluvia.  The  overlying 
soil  should  be  at  least  eight  feet  deep.  If  hard  rock  lies 
beneath,  sufficient  drainage  is  afforded  to  the  fluids  of  the 
graves.  Fissured  rock  beneath  a  superstratum  of  sand 
or  gravel,  receives  the  surface  water  with  great  rapidity, 
and  conducts  it  oftentimes  to  considerable  distances.  If 
beneath  a  cemetery,  the  wash  of  the  superincumbent  soil 
thus  contributes  to  the  pollution  of  neighboring  wells 
and  of  the  remoter  sources  of  water  supply.* 


*The  rapidity  with  which  a  deposit  of  sand  drinks  up  water  is  iUustrated  by 
Geo.  P.  Marsh  in  his  "  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action."  He  says  on  page 
477 :  "  In  a  heavy  thunder  storm,  accompanied  by  a  deluging  rain,  which  I  wit- 
nessed at  Mount  Sinai  in  the  month  of  May,  a  large  stream  of  water  poured  in  an 
almost  continuous  cascade  down  the  steep  ravine  north  of  the  convent  by  which 
travelers  sometimes  descend  from  the  plateau  between  the  two  peaks,  but,  after 
reaching  tl)e  foot  of  the  mountain,  it  flowed  but  a  few  yards  before  it  was  lost  in 
the  sands." 


PROTECTION  TO  SOURCES  OF  WATER  SUPPLY.       1 23 

In  the  selection  of  a  cemetery  site,  the  pollution  of 
wells  and  of  water  supply  should  receive  especial 
attention. 

In  the  Report  of  the  British  Local  Government  Board, 
before  noticed,  upon  the  "  Relations  of  a  Cemetery  to 
Sources  of  Water  Supply,"  we  read  :  "  It  is  evident  that 
the  drainage  of  a  cemetery  should  not  be  allowed  to 
enter  a  stream  from  which  water  is  drawn  for  domestic 
purposes.  The  degree  to  which  the  purity  of  neighbor- 
ing wells  is  endangered  by  a  cemetery,  and  the  distance 
to  which  contamination  may  extend,  obviously  depend  in 
each  particular  case  upon  the  relative  elevation  of  the 
respective  sites  of  cemetery  and  well,  and  upon  the 
nature  and  dip  of  the  intervening  strata,  so  that  it  would 
seem  impossible  to  lay  down  a  general  rule  for  all  cases. 
Fissured  rock  might  allow  foul  matters  to  traverse  con- 
siderable distances,  while  the  interposition  of  a  bed  of 
clay  or  a  water-tight  vault  would  shut  them  off,  or  the 
passage  through  an  aerated  stratum  of  finely-divided 
earth  would  oxidise  and  destroy  them  on  their  way.  A 
dangerous  state  of  things  is,  when  the  graves  and  wells 
are  sunk  near  together  in  a  shallow,  superficial,  water- 
bearing stratum  of  a  loosely  porous  nature,  resting  on 
impervious  clay.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the 
risk  to  which  wells  are  exposed  from  the  proximity  of  a 
properly-managed  cemetery  is,  in  ordinary  cases,  great." 

Dr.  Ranch,  in  his  "  Intra-mural  Interments,"  &c.,  states, 
in  regard  to  interments  in  the  City  of  Chicago  about 


124  WATER   POLLUTION. 

i860,  that,  owing  to  the  properties  of  the  soil  of  its 
cemeteries,  it  is  impossible  that  the  gases  emitted  from 
the  dead  should  be  absorbed  to  any  extent  or  neutralized 
by  its  action.  The  drainage  into  the  lake  from  every 
portion  of  these  cemeteries  was  manifest  ;  and  from  the 
topography  of  the  ground  and  the  sandy  nature  of  the 
soil,  resting  on  a  stratum  of  clay,  the  rainfall  percolates 
the  sand  and  decomposing  mass  of  animal  matter  until  it 
comes  to  the  clay,  and  is  carried  thence  to  the  lake,  less 
than  half  a  mile  above  the  Water  Works.  The  current 
which  is  flowing  constantly  along  the  shore  sweeps 
whatever  noxious  elements  may  come  from  the  ceme- 
teries to  the  very  source  of  the  universal  water  supply  of 
Chicago.*  The  subsequent  facts  are  these  :  The  popula- 
tion, in  six  years,  increased  70,ockd,  and  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  cemeteries  100  per  cent.  In  like  manner 
the  mortality  increased,  manifested  in  an  increase  of 
burials  almost  equal  to  the  increase  of  population. 

The  Mass.  State  Board  of  Health  (report  of  1875) 
notices  the  following  examples  of  water  pollution  which 
had  been  recently  reported. 

At  a  meeting  at  Milan,  Dr.  Polli,  to  prove  that  inhuma- 
tion taints  air  and  water,  referred  to  certain  researches  of 
Prof.  Selmi,  of  Mantua,  and  to  the  chemical  analyses  of 
the  waters  of  Milan,  by  Professors  Parvesi  and  Rontondi. 

M.  Ducamp  discovered  in  Paris  a  well,  the  water  of 


*  This  was  the  case  in  i860.     The  mode  of  supply  of  water  was  subsequently 
changed. 


WATER  POLLUTION.  12$ 

which  was  entirely  derived  from  cemeteries.  It  had 
acquired  a  sulphur-like  taste,  so  that  the  people  bought  it 
for  mineral  water. 

The  following  case  is  also  furnished :  "  In  the  last 
remarkable  report  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  of  Saxe, 
Reinhard  relates  that  nine  large  and  several  smaller 
victims  of  the  cattle  plague  were  interred  at  Dresden  at 
a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  feet.  It  was  found  the  next 
year  that  the  water  from  a  well  situate  one  hundred  feet 
from  the  pit  in  which  they  were  buried  had  a  fetid  odor, 
and  contained  butyrate  of  lime.  At  a  distance  of  twenty 
feet  it  had  the  disgusting  taste  of  butyric  acid  and  each 
quart  contained  about  thirty  grains  of  this  substance." 
The  bodies  were  subsequently  disinterred  and  buried. 

The  water  from  graveyards  contains  ammonium  and 
calcium  nitrates,  and  nitrates,  and  sometimes  fatty  acids 
and  much  organic  matter.  Lefort  found  a  well  of  water 
at  St.  Didier,  more  than  300  feet  from  a  cemetery,  to  be 
highly  contaminated  with  ammoniacal  salts  and  an  or- 
ganic matter  left  on  evaporation.  The  water  was  clear 
at  first,  but  had  a  vapid  taste,  and  speedily  became  pu- 
trid.    Parke  s  Hygiene. 

A  recent  report  on  the  preservation  of  the  Aiithrax 
germ  in  graves  furnishes  the  following  fact : 

In  Livingston  County,  New  York,  on  a  sandy  soil  over 
a  heavy  clay  soil,  the  graves  were  carefully  fenced  in  by 
direction  ;  but  nearly  a  year  after,  during  a  rainy  period, 
the  liquid  oozing  out  on  the  river  bank  between  the  clay 


126  DISEASE  GERMS   IN   WATER. 

and  sand,  and  opposite  one  of  the  fenced  graves,  was  licked 
by  six  cattle,  all  of  which  promptly  perished  of  anthrax. 
The  grave  was  now  fenced  in  down  to  the  water,  and  no 
further  deaths  occurred.  Report  of  Dr.  James  Laiu  on 
the  Bacillus  Aiithracis,  in  "  Contagious  Diseases  of  Do- 
mesticated Animals. ''  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1881. 

The  germs  of  cholera  and  of  typhoid  fever  are  mainly 
thrown  off  by  the  bowels.  If  they  are  exposed  to  the 
free  action  of  the  air  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  they  soon 
become  innocuous.  If  they  are  thrown  into  a  close  privy 
vault,  or  into  an  unventilated  sewer,  their  virulence  is 
increased,  and  their  emanations  are  intensely  pestilential. 
Atkins  says  that  the  specific  germs  of  typhoid  fever  may 
be  propagated  among  healthy  persons,  first,  by  percola- 
tion through  the  soil  into  wells  that  supply  drinking 
water ;  second,  by  issuing  through  defects  in  sewers ; 
third,  by  exhalations  through  apertures  of  ill-trapped 
water-closets.     Ibid. 

Professor  Fleck,  of  Dresden,  having  made  extended 
and  minute  investigations  of  water  from  wells  situated 
in  or  near  cemeteries,  published  the  same  in  1873.  Dres- 
den has  ten  cemeteries,  two  within  the  city,  the  others 
suburban.  Water  from  wells  situated  in  nine  was  care- 
fully analyzed  between  June  and  November,  1872,  and 
the  results  given.  The  remarks  of  Fleck  upon  these 
analyses  are  in  part  as  follows: 


CEMETERIES   IN   DRESDEN.  12/ 

"  In  general,  there  is  little  agreement  in  composition  among  the 
well  waters  from  the  different  cemeteries  in  Dresden,  and  it  seems 
evident  that  the  greatest  influence  is  exerted,  not  by  the  proximity  and 
age  of  the  graves,  so  much  as  by  the  character  of  the  ground.  With 
the  exception  of  the  water  from  the  Trinity  and  Elias  Cemeteries  (in 
which  cases  the  wells  are  situated  in  clean,  coarse  gravel),  the  amount 
of  organic  matter  is  very  considerable.  This  is  the  case  to  a  marked 
degree  in  the  well  waters  of  the  oldest  cemeteries — the  Anna  Ceme- 
tery, the  Catholic  Cemetery,  and  the  old  Evangelical  Cemetery, — 
where,  besides  notable  quantities  of  nitrates,  there  was  found  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  unoxydized  organic  matter.  In  the  Heller 
Cemetery,  which  is  in  clean  sand  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  the 
amount  of  nitric  acid  is  very  small ;  but  the  amount  of  ammonia  and 
of  organic  matter  is  quite  large.  These  differences  can  be  explained 
only  by  taking  into  account,  in  addition  to  the  influence  exerted  by 
the  character  of  the  soil,  also  the  effect  of  the  ground  water  itself. 
A  ground  water  at  a  great  depth,  moving  slowly,  that  is  to  say,  flow- 
ing with  a  slight  fall,  will  dilute  the  matter  dissolved  from  the  soil 
less,  and  will  afford  a  concentrated  solution  containing  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  organic  matter  than  a  ground  water  flowing  rapidly ;  and 
since  in  the  Trinity  Cemetery  the  ground  slopes  somewhat  rapidly 
towards  the  Elbe,  we  may  infer  that  the  motion  of  the  ground  water 
is  also  somewhat  rapid.  This  condition  of  things  gives  us  as  a  pro- 
duct a  water  which  is  poor  in  decomposed  and  undecomposed  organic 
matter,  that  is  to  say,  a  nearly  pure  water  in  spite  of  the  greater  amount 
of  lime  salts  originally  contained  in  the  ground  water.  In  no  other  one 
of  the  cemeteries  are  the  conditions  so  favorable  as  in  the  Trinity  ; 
and  in  the  case  of  the  Anna  Cemetery  (Annenkerchhof),  where  we 
should  expect  a  rapidly-moving  ground  water,  on  account  of  the  de- 
clivity of  the  surface,  there  is  lacking,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
wells,  the  porous  material  necessary  to  bring  about  a  rapid  decompo- 
sition of  the  contents  of  the  graves. 


128  REPORT   OF   OBSERVATIONS   MADE. 

"  It  may  be  stated,  as  the  result  of  experience,  that  the  best  locality 
for  a  cemetery  is  on  a  porous,  coarse-grained,  gravelly  soil,  with  rap- 
idly moving  ground  water,  that  is  to  say,  situated  on  a  declivity.  In 
such  a  situation  the  processes  of  decay  go  on  more  rapidly,  and  con- 
sequently it  is  possible  to  renew  the  graves  in  a  comparatively  short 
time." 

The  author  of  the  report  from  which  Professor  Fleck's 
remarks  are  taken  issued  circulars  to  nearly  500  physi- 
cians, with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  experience  of  the 
medical  profession  as  to  the  influence  of  cemeteries,  as  at 
present  managed,  upon  the  public  health.  The  circulars 
were  sent  to  medical  observers  in  this  country  and  in 
Great  Britain.     The  questions  he  propounded  were  : 

I.  Have  you  observed  any  instances  in  which  sickness 
appeared  to  be  induced  or  aggravated  by  the  proximity 
of  dwellings  to  cemeteries.     If  so,  please  cite  cases. 

II.  In  such  cases  have  you  attributed  such  sickness  to 
poisoned  wells,  or  foul  air,  or  both  ? 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  seventy-one  correspondents 
who  responded,  eleven  have  observed  sickness  from  this 
cause ;  three  attributing  it  to  foul  air,  four  to  poisoned 
wells,  and  four  to  both  causes  combined.  The  remaining 
one  hundred  and  sixty-one  have  never  observed  any  such 
phenomena.  A  considerable  number  state  that  the  cem- 
eteries in  their  vicinity  are  at  a  distance  from  habitations. 

The  process  and  progression  of  putrefaction  in  organic 
bodies  are  governed  by  the  particular  circumstances  which 
surround  them.      The   remains  of  the  young  decompose 


PROGRESS   OF  DECOMPOSITION.  1 29 

with  greater  rapidity  than  those  more  advanced  in  h'fe ; 
those  of  females  more  speedily  than  of  males ;  those 
dying  in  full  health  than  those  whose  tissues  are  wasted 
by  disease. 

Persons  dying  from  diseases  of  a  malignant  nature,  or 
where  the  fluids  are  in  a  depraved  condition,  decompose 
with  still  greater  rapidity.  When  decomposition  takes 
place,  the  parts  become  soft ;  they  change  in  color,  ex- 
hale a  disgusting  odor,  diminish  in  weight,  and  afford 
several  new  products,  some  of  which  escape  in  gaseous 
form  ;  others  pass  off  in  a  liquid  state,  and  others  again 
are  contained  in  a  fatty  or  earthy  residuum.  The  prin- 
cipal elements  of  animal  matter  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  These,  dur- 
ing life,  with  a  few  other  elements,  are  variously  combined 
to  form  the  different  tissues  of  the  body.  During  life 
they  are  held  together  in  a  solid  or  liquid  form.  When 
life  ceases  they  separate  from  one  another,  form  new  com- 
binations and  escape.     Ranch. 

A  certain  temperature  and  a  certain  degree  of  moisture 
are  indispensible  agents  in  the  common  process  of  putre- 
faction. Could  these  be  avoided,  human  bodies  might 
last  indefinitely.  When  a  certain  degree  of  cold  exists  it 
tends  to  check  the  destructive  process.  When  it  extends 
to  congelation  its  protecting  power  is  complete."^ 


*  The  most  remarkable  instance  of  preservation  by  frost  of  an  animal  body,  is 
that  of  an  elephant  of  an  extinct  species,  discovered  in  1806  in  the  ice  of  the  polar 
seas  by  Mr.  Michael  Adams.     The  animal  was  first  seen  by  a  chief  of  the  Ton- 
17 


130  PROGRESS   OF   DECOMPOSITION. 

Maret  thinks  that  the  extent  of  cemeteries  should  be 
determined  by  the  time  necessary  for  the  total  destruc- 
tion of  bodies  inhumed  within  them.  He  means  by 
total  destruction,  the  dissolution  of  the  soft  tissues,  leav- 
ing the  bones  dry  and  entire.  He  thinks  three  years 
sufficient  to  decompose  a  body  in  a  grave  four  or  five 
feet  deep.  At  a  depth  of  six  feet,  the  process  of  putre- 
faction is  retarded  by  pressure.  From  this  he  reasons 
that  the  ground  should  be  so  apportioned  as  to  contain 
three  times  the  mortality  of  a  year,  if  the  graves  are  four 
or  five  feet  deep.  If  they  are  six  or  seven  feet  deep,  it 
should  contain  four  times  that  amount.  Such  a  calcula- 
tion relates  to  grounds  for  burial  which  are  to  be  used 
without  that  reverent  regard  for  the  permanent  repose 
of  the  dead  which  in  our  own  country  is  a  chief  consider- 


guse  tribe,  in  the  year  1799.  At  this  time  it  was  imbedded  in  a  rock  of  ice  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  high,  and  had  only  two  feet,  with  a  small  part  of  the 
body  projecting  from  the  side  so  as  to  be  visible.  At  the  close  of  the  next  sum- 
mer the  entire  flank  of  the  animal  was  thawed  out.  It  required  five  summers  to 
thaw  the  ice  so  that  the  whole  body  could  be  liberated.  At  length,  in  1804,  the 
enormous  mass  separated  from  the  mountain  of  ice  and  fell  over  upon  its  side  on 
a  sand  bank.  At  this  time  it  appears  to  have  been  in  a  state  of  perfect  preserva- 
tion, with  its  skin  and  flesh  as  entire  as  when  it  had  existed  before  the  deluge^  or 
during  that  condition  of  the  globe  which  placed  animals  apparently  of  the  torrid 
zone  in  the  confines  of  the  Arctic  circle.  The  Tonguse  chief  cut  off  the  tusks, 
which  were  nine  feet  long  and  weighed  two  hundred  pounds  each.  Two  years 
after  this  event,  Mr.  Adams  being  at  Yakutsk  and  hearing  of  the  animal  jour- 
neyed to  the  spot.  He  found  the  animal  in  the  same  place  but  greatly  mutilated 
by  the  dogs  and  wolves  of  the  neighborhood,  which  had  fed  upon  the  flesh  as  fast 
as  it  thawed.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  removing  the  whole  skeleton  and  in 
recovering  two  of  the  feet,  one  of  the  ears,  one  of  the  eyes  and  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  skin,  which  was  covered  with  reddish  hair  and  black  bristles. 
These  are  now  in  the  museum  at  St.  Petersburg.      Digelow's  "Modern  EtiquirUs." 


TIME   FOR    COMPLETE   DECAY.  I3I 

ation  in  founding  cemeteries  where  their  sacred  dust  shall 
be  preserved  from  future  disturbance. 

The  length  of  time  necessary  to  efifect  complete  decom- 
position varies  according  to  the  soil.  It  is  shorter  in  one 
porous  and  open  than  in  one  either  dense  or  clayey. 
The  regulations  of  the  Home  Office  (British)  prescribe 
that  no  unwalled  grave  shall  be  reopened  within  fourteen 
years  after  the  burial  of  a  person  above  twelve  years  of 
age,  or  within  eight  years  after  a  burial  of  a  child  under 
twelve  years  of  age,  unless  to  bury  another  member  of 
the  same  family,  in  which  case  a  layer  of  earth  not  less 
than  one  foot  thick  shall  be  left  undisturbed  above  the 
previously-buried  coffin.  If,  on  reopening  any  grave,  the 
soil  be  found  to  be  offensive,  such  soil  shall  not  be  dis- 
turbed, and  in  no  case  shall  human  remains  be  removed 
from  the  grave. 

In  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  National  Board  of  Health, 
1879,  *t  ^s  noted  of  Weehawken  cemetery,  Bergen  Co., 
New  Jersey  :  "  In  the  dry  and  porous  soils,  from  one  to 
three  years  will  insure  complete  decay.  In  the  moist  and 
heavy  earth,  a  much  longer  period.  In  the  cemeteries  of 
Hudson  County,  New  Jersey,  the  soil  varies  somewhat. 
The  graves  are  dry.  As  to  the  rapidity  of  decay,  it 
varies  with  .ae  soil.  In  the  tenacious  and  clayey  por- 
tions, bodies  have  been  exhumed  after  twelve  years  and 
found  not  completely  destroyed.  "  In  the  more  sandy 
and  porous  soils,  three  years  are  sufficient  to  reduce 
bodies  to  the  condition  in  which  they  would  be  in  clay- 


132  GRAVE  SPACES. 

moist  soils  in  twelve  years."  Other  testimony,  and  from 
other  districts,  is  to  the  same  effect.  We  think  it  may  be 
accepted  as  a  rule  that  in  favorable  soils — porous  and 
well  aerated — decomposition  will  be  complete  in  from 
three  to  four  years  ;  and  in  soils  dense,  clayey  or  wet,  the 
putrefactive  process  will  be  delayed  for  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  years,  according  to  the  circumstances.* 

The  size  of  grave  spaces,  as  adopted  by  the  British 
Home  Office,  and  so  prescribed,  is  nine  feet  long  by 
four  feet  broad,  four  square  yards  for  an  adult,  and  for  a 
child  under  twelve,  two  square  yards,  either  four  and  a 
half  by  four  feet,  or  six  by  three  feet.  This  size,  which 
may  be  recommended  by  sanitary  authorities  for  general 
adoption,  allows  the  retention  of  a  strip  of  undisturbed 
ground  about  two  feet  in  width  between  two  adjacent 
graves.  In  any  case  it  is  important  that  each  grave 
should  be  at  least  a  foot  distant  from  the  nearest  graves 
on  every  side,  not  only  to  prevent  the  passage  of  effluvia 
into  the  open    grave    from    decomposing   bodies    in    the 


*  The  following  was  related  to  the  writer  by  one  of  the  parties  concerned.  A 
young  man  was  instantly  killed  by  lightning  on  Governor's  Island,  New  York 
harbor,  while  at  work  as  a  carpenter.  His  body  was  brought  to  Orange,  N.  J., 
and  buried  in  the  parish  burying-place.  He  was  killed  on  the  24th  of  June,  1799, 
In  the  month  of  December,  1878 — seventy-nine  years  afterwards — two  of  his  neph- 
ews superintended  the  interment  of  his  remains  for  removal  to  another  resting 
place.  One  of  them  was  an  intelligent  physician.  The  soil  of  the  graveyard  is 
a  sandy  loam  overlying  the  red  sandstone,  which  is  from  eight  to  twelve  feet 
beneath.  About  a  foot  of  gravel  was  found  above  the  remains.  When  they  were 
reached  it  was  found  that  the  coffin  and  everything  of  the  body  was  gone  except 
the  skeleton,  which  was  in  a  state  of  complete  preservation.  The  bones  perfectly 
preserved  were  taken  out  with  great  care  and  laid  on  the  ground  beside  the  exca- 
vation. The  perfect  skeleton  was  thus  reproduced.  Not  a  carpal  or  metacarpal, 
nor  a  tarsal  or  metatarsal  bone  was  missing. 


MODES   OF  INTERMENT.  1 33 

graves  adjoining,  but  to  avoid  the  danger  of  falls  of  earth 
when  excavations  are  made  too  near  to  ground  which  has 
been  previously  disturbed. 

The  modes  of  interments  in  the  British  cemeteries  are  in 
graves,  vaults  and  tombs.  The  former  are  in  general  use. 
Their  depth  varies  from  five  to  six  feet,  the  same  being 
prescribed  by  the  cemetery  companies,  or  by  the  authori- 
ties of  the  towns  or  cities  where  they  are  situated."^ 
Graves  are  the  safest  place  for  burial,  and  furnish  condi- 
tions for  the  most  rapid  progress  of  decomposition. 

When  vaults  are  used  they  should  always  be  built 
under  ground,  in  places  well  drained,  and  as  free  as  possi- 
ble from  moisture.  Bodies  in  vaults  decompose  slowly 
under  the  most  favorable  soil  conditions.  Tombs  built 
above  ground,  and  such  as  will  be  best  adapted  to  preserve 
the  air  from  the  noxious  vapors  of  decomposition,  should 
be  constructed  with  chambers  in  stone  and  masonry,  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  hermetically  sealed  with  stone 
and  cement,  as  they  successively  become  occupied. 


*  In  Greenwood  Cemetery,  Brooklyn,  which  is  the  largest  in  this  country 
containing  450  acres,  the  graves  are  six  feet  deep.  The  soil  is  mostly  a  sandv 
loam  and  gravel.  It  was  established  in  1840.  The  number  of  interments  to 
November,  1882,  is  216,137. 

In  a  recent  medical  journal,  in  an  article  on  cremation,  it  is  said:  ''It  need 
surprise  no  one  to  learn  that  tlie  exhalations  of  this  cemetery  (Greenwood)  were 
recently  complained  of  in  South  Brooklyn."  This  writer  addressed  a  letter  to 
Doctor  J.  H.  Raymond,  tlie  intelligent  Commissioner  of  Public  Health  in  Brook- 
lyn, containing  the  above  extract,  and  asking  if  the  fact  therein  stated  was  so. 
His  reply  was,  "  I  have  heard  no  complaints  about  exhalations,  nor  can  I  learn 
from  any  source  that  any  such  have  been  made."  We  notice  this  to  correct  an 
error,  but  more  to  illustrate  the  good  sanitary  influences  of  a  very  large,  yet  well 
regulated  rural  cemetery. 


134  COFFINS  EARLY   USED. 

COFFINS    FOR  THE   DEAD. 

Coffins  have  baeii  used  from  the  earliest  ages  of  which 
history  or  monuments  furnish  any  memorials. 

The  word  coffin  is  derived  the'  Greek  kofinos, — a  basket, 
coffer,  chest  ;  in  the  ordinary  English  sense,  a  chest  or 
box  in  which  the  dead  are  laid. 

When  Joseph  died,  we  have  the  scripture  record  : 
"  They  embalmed  him  and  he  was  put  in  a  coffin  in 
Egypt."  This  is  the  first  and  only  time  that  the  word 
appears  in  the  scriptures.  It  was,  doubtless  a  mark 
of  distinguished  honor  to  one  who,  by  the  word  of  Pha- 
raoh, had  so  long  been  "  ruler  over  all  the  land  of 
Egypt."* 

When  Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  (A.  C.  SS^O 
conquered  Egypt,  the  spies  whom  he  sent  forth  to  make 
observation  of  the  kingdom,  were  permitted   to  sec  the 


*  It  is  supposed  by  some  writers  upon  Egypt  that  the  evaporation  and  absorp- 
tion by  the  earth  are  so  rapid  that  the  Egyptians  were  led  to  adopt  embalmment. 
Herodotus  says  that  they  embalmed  their  dead  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  the 
bodies  by  worms.  It  came  to  be  a  custom  with  them,  after  the  embalming  pro- 
cess was  completed,  to  enclose  the  bodies  in  a  case  or  coffin  made  of  paper  or 
other  fabrics,  and  saturated  with  substances  for  its  preservation .  The  atmosphere 
of  our  northwestern  Territories  is  dry  to  such  a  degree  that  the  snows  of  the 
winter  pass  off  from  the  ground  without  leaving  it  wet.  A  mummified  buffalo 
was  found  a  few  years  since  on  the  plains  of  Colorado.  An  occasional  specimen 
of  an  Indian  muirimy  is  to  be  found  in  our  museums. 

A  traveler  over  a  plain  near  the  Soudah  Mountains,  in  Northern  Africa,  ob- 
served many  skeletons  of  animals,  which  had  died  of  fatigue  on  the  desert,  and 
occusionally  the  grave  of  a  human  being.  All  these  bodies  were  so  dried  by  the 
heat  of  the  bun  that  putrefaction  appeared  not  to  have  taken  place  after  death. 
In  animals  recently  dead  he  could  not  detect  the  slightest  offensive  smell;  and 
in  those  long  dead,  the  skin  with  the  hair  on  it  remained  unbroken  and  perfect, 
although  so  brittle  as  to  break  with  a  slight  blow.    Lyell's  Geology. 


COFFINS.  135 

coffins  of  the  Ethiopians,  which  were  made  of  crystal. 
The  corpse  was  "placed  in  a  crystal  pillar,  hollowed  out 
to  receive  it.  '^'  '^'  *  You  may  see  the  corpse  through 
the  pillar,  within  which  it  lies."  Herod,  b.  iii,  §  24.  This 
was  probably  glass,  as  it  is  known  to  have  been  made  in 
Egypt  2,000  years  before  Christ,  having  been  found  bear- 
ing the  name  of  a  Pharaoh  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 
Rawlinsoii  s  Notes. 

Coffins,  in  the  modern  sense,  were  known  in  Greece, 
composed  of  various  materials.  Those  most  common 
were  of  baked  clay  or  earthenware.  The  coffin  of  the 
Romans  was  called  area  or  lociihis,  and  was  frequently 
made  of  stone — originally  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  stone, 
brought  from  Assos,  in  Troas,  which  was  said  to  consume 
all  the  body  except  the  teeth  in  a  few  weeks.  From  this 
fact  it  was  called  sarcophagus, — the  Greek  word  for  flesh 
destroying.  They  also  had  coffins  of  bricks  covered  with 
tiles ;  of  stones,  with  urns,  patercB  and  lachrymatories  in 
them.  They  had,  also,  leaden  and  glass  coffins.  Of 
wooden  coffins,  Arthur's  is  the  oldest  known  instance. 
They  frequently  occur  in  English  barrows,  boxes  hollowed 
out  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  Sometimes  an  elm  with  the 
bark  on,  fastened  with  rivets  and  small  strips  of  brass, 
have  been  found  in  English  barrows,  holding  skeletons 
and  burnt  bones. 

Many  Roman  stone  coffins  have  been  found  in  England. 
The  simplest  of  all  was  that  used  by  the  British  Celts  and 
other  rude  nations,  consisting  of  unhewn  stones  set  on 


136  COFFINS. 

their  edges,  so  as  to  cover  the  sides  and  ends  of  the 
graves,  one  or  more  fiat  stones  being  tlien  laid  over  the 
body,  to  form  the  lid.  To  these  succeed  stone  coffins, 
used  for  persons  of  the  higher  classes  in  Saxon  times  and 
throughout  the  middle  ages.  They  occur  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons  so  early  as  695,  and  were  not  quite  obso- 
lete before  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  (1509).  They  were 
generally  of  a  single  block,  tapering  from  the  upper  end. 
In  the  hollow  for  the  reception  of  the  body  was  a  part 
cut  out  and  fitted  for  the  head  and  a  hole  in  the  bottom 
to  permit  the  escape  of  the  fluids  of  the  decomposing 
body.  They  were  not  buried  deeply  in  the  earth,  and 
were  frequently  so  near  the  surface  that  the  lids  were 
visible.  If  within  a  church  the  lid  formed  part  of  the 
pavement,  and  sometimes  they  were  above  the  ground 
altogether,  and  thus  became  the  originals  of  the  Altar 
Tombs.  Leaden  coffins  were  occasionally  used  in  the 
middle  ages.  Strtitfs  Manners  a)id  Ciistonis.  GougJis 
Sepulchral  Monuments.     Fosbroke's  Ency.  of  Ant. 

About  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  and  for  a  century 
after,  the  usual  folding  of  a  corpse  seems  to  have  been  the 
strongest  leather,  or  a  bull's  hide.  Of  the  fashion  of  the 
ox  hide  there  are  a  great  many  instances.  Henry  I  and 
his  son  Prince  Henry,  the  Empress  Maude,  King  John,  a 
countess  of  Pembroke,  James  HI  of  Scotland  are  re- 
corded by  Gough  as  wrapped  in  bulls'  hides. ''''' 


*  "  From  the  great  number  of  stone  coffins  found  in  tliis  kingdom  (Derbyshire, 
Gloucester,  Notlinghamsliire),  it  appears  that  formerly  all  iiersons  of  rank  and 


BURIAL   IN   THE    BARE    EARTH.  1 3/ 

In  the  Norman  dynasty,  it  was  the  custom  to  bury 
monks  in  the  bare  ground.*  Abbot  Waring  (died  1195) 
ordered  that  they  should  be  buried  in  stone  coffins,  as 
more  decent.  With  this  exception,  the  former  custom 
prevailed  for  long  after.  In  the  time  of  Edward  II  and 
III,  even  persons  of  distinction  preferred  to  have  their 
bodies  committed  to  the  bare  earth.  It  was  a  common 
custom  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  to  bury  only  in 
winding  sheets.  There  were  recently  to  be  seen  at  St. 
Albans  and  at  Durham,  the  chests,  with  hd  and  hinges, 
which  were  formerly  used  as  biers  to  convey  those  dead 
to  the  grave  who  had  no  coffin  but  their  winding  sheets. 
When  laborers  were  at  work  in  the  choir  of  Gloucester, 
in  1 741,  during  the  ransacking,  as  it  is  called,  of  that 
cathedral,  they  found  in  the  passage  three  abbots  buried 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground   in  pontificalibus,  part  of 


dignity,  of  fortune  and  fashion,  were  buried  in  this  manner.  It  was  the  custom 
among  our  Saxon  ancestors.  The  number  of  the  coffins  found  is  no  inconsider- 
able proof  of  it,  but  there  is  a  clear  instance  in  Ven.  Bede,  who,  speaking  of 
Queen  ^dylthryd,  or  St.  Awdry,  that  died  of  the  pestilence  in  the  year  669,  says 
she  was  burled  by  her  express  command  in  a  wooden  coffin — '  et  ceque,  ut  ipsa 
jusserat,  non  alibi  qiiam  in  medio  eorum  j uxta  ordinem  quo  transierat  ligneo  in  locello 
sepulta.' 

"  This  implies  that  otherwise  a  person  of  her  high  birth  and  great  dignity  would 
have  been  buried  in  a  coffin  of  stone.  This  inference  is  just,  for  it  follows  after, 
in  the  same  author,  that  her  sister  Sexburg,  who  succeeded  her  as  abbess,  after 
the  body  had  lain  in  the  grave  sixteen  years,  caused  her  bones  to  be  taken  up,  put 
in  a  new  (stone)  coffin  and  translated  to  a  place  in  the  church.  In  more  modern 
times  their  use  was  continued  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  III  ;  in  some  cases  to 
Henry  VIII."     Sa-m'l  Pegge,  in  Gent.  Mag.,  1759. 

*  In  the  monkish  times,  stone  coffins  were  much  in  vogue  for  persons  of  quality. 
For  the  inferior  monks,  the  most  common  way  was  by  the  winding  sheet.  Notes 
and  Queries. 

18 


138  BURIAL   WITH    FEET   TO   THE   EAST. 

the  gloves  and  apparel  remaining.  Ancient  bishops  of 
London  were  so  found  lying  in  their  proper  habits.    Ibid. 

Among  the  vestry  minutes  of  St.  Helen's,  Bishops- 
gate,  is  the  following,  March  5th,  1564,  proving  that  the 
custom  of  burials  in  a  winding  sheet  had  prevailed  and 
ought  to  be  stopped  :  "  Item,  That  none  should  be  buried 
within  the  church  unless  the  dead  corpse  be  coffined  in 
wood."     Notes  and  Queries. 

It  was  a  custom  observed  in  various  parts  of  Christen- 
dom before  and  since  the  seventeenth  century,  to  bury 
the  clergy  with  their  feet  towards  the  east,  that  they  may 
meet  their  flocks  on  the  morning  of  the  great  day  and 
conduct  them  to  the  tribunal.  Tradition  has  fostered 
the  expectation  that  our  Lord  will  appear  in  the  east. 
Therefore,  all  the  faithful  dead  are  buried  with  their  feet 
to  the  east,  to  meet  him.  Hence,  in  Wales,  the  east 
wind  is  called  the  wind  of  the  dead  men's  feet.  This 
sacerdotal  privilege  was  conferred  in  1614,  by  a  rule  con- 
tained in  the  Rituale  Romanum,  sanctioned  by  Pope 
Paul  V.     Ibid. 

In  the  reign  of  James  II,  a  St.  Clair  was  buried  in  a 
coffin.  The  usage  of  interring  the  knights  of  this  noble 
family  in  their  armor  and  without  coffin,  is  referred  to 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott : 

"  Seemed  all  on  fire  that  chapel  proud, 
Where  Roslin's  chiefs  uncoffined  lie. 
Each  baron,  for  a  sable  shroud, 
Sheathed  in  his  iron  Panoply. 


WOODEN    COFFINS.  1 39 

"  Seemed  all  on  fire  within,  around, 
Deep  sacristry  and  altars  pale ; 
Shone  every  pillar  foliage  bound, 

And  glimmered  all  the  dead  men's  mail." 

Shakespeare,  in  ten  or  twelve  instances,  notices  coffins 
of  wood  as  enclosing  the  honored  dead. 

"  Upon  a  wooden  coffin  we  attend," 

says  Exeter,  in  ist  Henry,  vi :  i,  3. 

Clifford,  when  importuned  by  the  Earl  of  Rutland  to 
spare  his  life,  says — 3d  Henry,  vi :   i,  3  : 

"  No,  if  I  digged  up  my  forefather's  graves 
And  hung  their  rotten  cofifins  up  in  chains 
It  could  not  slake  mine  ire." 

The  very  few  allusions  of  the  poet  to  the  "  uncoffined  " 
dead  relate  to  the  ignoble  poor  and  to  criminal  outcasts. 

It  would  seem,  from  the  apparently  studious  avoidance 
of  any  mention  of  coffins  in  the  burial  service  of  the 
Church  of  England,  that  at  the  period  of  the  compilation 
of  that  service  (1546-7),  uncoffined  interments  were  com-  • 
mon  ;  corpse,  or  body,  alone  is  spoken  of.  Sir  Henry 
Spelman  says  in  his  works  :  "  Interments  without  coffins 
were  common  amongst  the  humbler  classes  even  so  late 
as  the  year  1650.     Some  decent  involucra  or  coverings 


140  SWATHING   OF   THE   DEAD. 

were  deemed  to  be  necessary,  but  this  was  all."*  Notes 
and  Queries. 

Linen  was  the  customary  fabric  for  swathing  the  dead 
by  those  who  were  able  to  purchase.  As  it  was  imported 
from  "  beyond  the  seas,"  an  act  was  passed  by  Parliament 
in  1 8th  of  Charles  II,  "-for  burying  in  ivoolen  only'' 
intended  to  lessen  the  importation  of  linen,  and  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  woolen  manufacturers  of  the 
kingdom.  It  provided  that  no  corpse  should  be  buried 
but  in  woolen  only  ;  penalty,  ^^5.  A  register  to  be  kept 
in  every  parish  of  persons  buried  there,  af^davit  to  be 
made  within  eight  days  after  each  burial  that  the  person 
was  buried  in  woolen  ;  penalty,  £^. 

The  very  poor  were  sewed  up  in  sheets  and  carried  to 
the  grave  in  a  ''  parish  shell,"  which  was  a  coarser  kind  of 
coffin  with  a  movable  lid,  and  used  as  a  bierf  for  the 
purpose  of  conveying  the  body  to  the  place  of  sepulture. 
Fosbroke  Eficy.  Ant. 

Interment  in  the  bare  earth  was  the  common  method 
among  the  Jews  and  other  nations  as  well.  Jacob  was 
embalmed  by  command  of  Joseph,  and  Joseph  also  was 
embalmed.     As  they  died  in  Egypt,  their  remains  were 


*  In  Caiston,  Lincolnshire,  is  a  register,  date  1707:  "The  parish  clerk  is 
chosen  by  the  vicar,  his  salary  paid  as  foUoweth,  viz.  :  the  church  wardens  pay 
him  yearly  for  winding  the  clock  and  ringing  the  bell  at  the  customary  honri  day 
and  night,  17  shillings,  and  the  constable  for  every  passing  bell,  five  pence.  For 
every  grave  in  the  churchyard  and  without  coffin,  four  pence ;  if  with  coffin,  one 
shilling,"  &c.    Notes  and  Queries. 

t  Bier  has  the  same  root  as  bear— to  carry. 


BURIAL   IN   THE    BARE   EARTH.  I4I 

thus  distinguished  according  to  the  custonns  of  the 
country.  No  other  Israelite  is  spoken  of  in  the  old  testa- 
ment scripture  as  having  been  embalmed.  Numerous 
burials  are  noticed,  of  which  we  have  spoken  before. 
Some  were  laid  in  tombs,  but  the  most  were  buried  in  the 
earth.  The  body  of  our  Saviour  was  wrapped  in  linen. 
The  stone  at  the  door  of  the  sepulchre  was,  to  the  minds 
of  the  holy  women,  the  only  apprehended  hindrance  to 
their  approach  to  his  body. 

Through  all  English  history  the  distinguished  alone,  as 
we  have  seen,  were  laid  in  coffins.  It  is  reasonable  to 
infer  that  the  dead  bodies  of  the  pilgrims  at  Plymouth, 
so  many  of  whom  died  during  the  first  winter,  were  laid 
in  the  bare  earth.  So  immediately  after  the  arrival  of  the 
pilgrim  fathers,  harassed  by  their  various  needs,  destitute 
of  sawed  timber,  half  their  number  "  wasting  away  by 
consumptions  and  lung  fevers,"  fear  of  the  Indians 
prompting  them  to  conceal  the  great  mortality  among 
their  little  company,  we  cannot  doubt  that  any  other 
mode  of  burial  was  adopted  than  that  to  which  they  were 
accustomed  in  the  land  of  their  fathers.  The  writer  has 
taken  great  pains  to  find  records  or  tradition  upon  this 
subject  among  the  old  towns  of  Massachusetts  and  on 
Long  Island,  but  thus  far  without  success.  In  Doctor 
Samuel  A.  Green's  "  Early  Records  of  Groton,  Mass.," 
are  the  items  of  a  town  clerk's  funeral  expenses,  February, 
i/of.  They  are:  "A  winding  sheet,  18  shillings;  coffin, 
lOs. ;  grave  digging,  ys.,6d. ;  "  &c.     In  the  Massachusetts 


142  "  EARTH   TO    EARTH  "    COFFIN. 

Historical  Society  collections  are  some  nails  from  the 
coffins  of  Roger  Williams  and  of  his  wife.  The  coffins 
were  wholly  decayed  except  a  few  fragments.  Williams 
died  in  April,  1683. 

Burial  in  coffins,  as  a  universal  custom,  commenced 
with  the  last  century.     Fosbroke's  Ency.  Ant. 

A  reverent  respect  for  the  dead  and  the  purest  senti- 
ments of  affection  are  in  harmony  with  the  method  of 
depositing,  in  proper  swathing,  in  mother  earth,  the 
bodies  of  those  who  "  return  to  their  dust."  It  hastens 
the  inevitable  decay,  and  thus  protects  the  living.  A 
burial  at  sea  without  a  coffin  is  accepted  as  proper,  and  is 
not  esteemed  to  be  abhorrent  to  surviving  friends. 

Some  years  ago  Mr.  Francis  Seymour  Haden,  an  emi- 
nent surgeon,  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  the  London 
Times,  in  which  he  very  forcibly  showed  that  the  solid 
coffin  is  a  source  of  evil,  and  that  burial  in  it  was  dishon- 
oring to  the  dead  and  fatal  to  the  living.  He  pointed  out 
the  distinction  between  effective  and  non-effective  inhuma- 
tion, and  that  the  former  could  not  be  obtained  in  heavy 
oak  or  other  wooden  coffins.  The  result  of  his  teachings 
upon  the  subject  has  been  the  introduction  into  England 
of  the  "Earth  to  Earth"  coffin,  constructed  of  perishable 
material,  as  pulp  or  wicker-work,  but  with  the  necessary 
strength  and  solidity,  and  with  the  general  appearance  of 
an  ordinary  coffin.  A  casket  such  as  this  meets  the 
requisites  of  inhumation    and  does   no  violence    to    our 


MEASURES  BEFORE  BURIAL.  I43 

present  burial  associations.  Their  introduction  into  our 
own  country  would,  if  they  were  understood,  be  atten- 
ded with  the  popular  favor. 

The  treatment  of  a  corpse  before  burial  is  a  subject 
worthy  of  the  careful  and  studious  consideration  of 
undertakers  for  the  prevention  of  the  spread  and  fatality 
of  disease.  It  is  a  part  of  their  office  to  enforce  the 
strictest  rules  of  cleanliness  and  disinfection.  "  The  Jew- 
ish mode  of  sanitation,  as  revealed  in  scripture  and  as 
illustrated  in  profane  history,  is  well  worthy  of  note  as  an 
example.  Immediately  after  death  the  body  was  well 
washed,  generally  with  a  strong  solution  of  native  carbon- 
ate of  soda.  It  was  then  anointed  all  over  with  some 
fragrant  oil.  Most  of  the  essential  oils  have  disinfectant 
properties.  In  some  cases,  as  in  scarlet  fever  for  instance, 
oil  serves  a  valuable  purpose  in  preventing  particles  from 
the  skin  from  floating  in  the  atmosphere.  'Oil  or  vaseline 
can  be  used  still  with  advantage."  Dr.  Hunt,  jd  An. 
Rep.  State  B.  of  H.,  N.  J. 

The  interval  of  time  between  death  and  burial  varies 
somewhat  according  to  the  custom  of  neighborhoods  and 
classes  of  people.  "  When  thou  hast  wept  awhile,"  says 
Jeremy  Taylor,  "  compose  the  body  to  burial ;  which, 
that  it  may  be  done  gravely,  decently  and  charitably,  we 
have  examples  of  all  nations  to  engage  us,  and  of  all  ages 
of  the  world  to  warrant.     So  that  it  is  against  common 


144  COUNTRY   GRAVEYARDS. 

honesty  and  public  fame  and  reputation  not  to  do  tliis 
office."  Impressed  with  such  sentiments,  we  should  pay 
our  tribute  of  love  and  respect  to  the  dead. 

The  stages  of  decomposition  which  are  the  most  dan- 
gerous are,  that  which  takes  place  immediately  after 
death,  and  the  extreme  degree  of  putrefaction.  Among 
the  poorer  classes  who  live  in  very  limited,  ill-ventilated 
quarters,  the  corpse  frequently  occupies  the  bed  where 
the  previous  sickness  and  death  have  occurred.  Its  eman- 
ations, and  those  of  the  sordes,  infect  the  air.  Here  the 
members  of  the  family  eat  and  drink,  and  work  and  sleep. 
Thence  go  forth,  in  neglected  neighborhoods,  infection 
and  contagion  to  do  their  fatal  work.  The  custom 
among  a  portion  of  our  foreign  population  of  waking  the 
dead  is  attended  with  serious  danger,  and  becomes  the 
frequent  occasion  of  transporting  the  contagion  of  dis- 
ease in  a  degree  corresponding  to  the  numbers  of  those 
partaking  in  it.  While  preparing  this  manuscript,  its 
writer  has  found  it  to  be  his  duty  to  warn  one  of  his  own 
household,  and  forbid  attendance  at  the  wake  of  a  child 
who  had  died  of  scarlet  fever. 

COUNTRY   GRAVEYARDS. 

We  have  considered  the  subject  of  rural  cemeteries — 
their  comparative  safety  and  the  best  methods  of  man- 
agement to  preserve  the  public  health.  These  arc,  for 
the  most  part,  established, for  our  cities  and  larger  towns. 


COUNTRY   GRAVEYARDS.  I45 

A  graveyard  in  the  country  is  not  usually  deemed  to  be 
a  source  of  infection  or  a  means  of  deterioration  of  the 
air.  In  many  cases  it  is  not  ;  but  the  facts  which  have 
been  presented  in  this  treatise  have  a  logic  in  them  which 
cannot,  with  a  wise  regard  to  the  health  of  a  town,  be 
overlooked  or  disregarded.  In  the  Report  of  the  Board 
of  Health  of  New  Jersey,  1880,  we  find  the  following 
from  a  writer  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State : 
"  Another  great  nuisance  in  some  parts  of  the  country  is 
the  graveyard  or  burying-ground  ;  such  a  one  we  have  in 

the  village  of ,  in  the  shape  of  a  graveyard.     It  is 

in  the  centre  of  the  village,  and  on  the  elevated  side  of 
the  street.  The  church  is  in  the  graveyard.  Private 
dwelling  houses  are  situated  on  the  lower,  or  other 
side,  of  the  street.  Each  house  has  a  well  of  water  for 
family  use.  The  water  runs  from  the  graveyard  into 
these  wells.  I  have  heard  one  old  sexton  of  this  church 
tell  me  a  number  of  times,  that  when  graves  were  dug  in 
certain  parts  of  the  yard  the  wells  of  water  would  become 
roiled  and  muddled  during  the  process  of  digging.  The 
children  of  the  Sunday  school  drink  out  of  these  wells, 
and  the  children  of  the  public  school  in  the  place  patron- 
ize them,  as  the  school  has  no  well  of  its  own  ;  and  if  it 
had,  the  school-house  is  situated  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
graveyard.  This  graveyard  is  a  confirmed  nuisance.  It 
is  an  old  yard,  and  the  community  still  bury  in  it.  The 
land  is  wet  and  soggy  in  the  yard.  There  are  a  number 
of  good  locations  within  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  from 
\9 


146  COUNTRY   GRAVEYARD    NUISANCES. 

the  village  for  a  cemetery ;  soil  dry  and  pleasant.  I 
urge  strongly  on  the  State  Board  of  Health  that  the 
matter  be  looked  into,  and,  if  I  am  correct,  that  an  act 
of  the  Legislature  be  passed  preventing  any  more  burials 
taking  place  in  this  graveyard." 

Another  writer  from  another  county  in  New  Jersey 
remarks  that  burial-grounds  are  mostly  connected  with 
churches,  and  raises  the  question  whether  churches  which 
are  closely  crowded  upon  by  graves,  and  not  occupied 
during  the  week,  do  not  become  receptacles  of  graveyard 
air,  and  thus  risk  the  health  of  the  Sabbath  worshipers, 
especially  in  those  churches  heated  by  furnaces,  which 
cause  a  current  of  air  from  without  laden  with  noxious 
gases. 

In  the  case  of  the  graveyard  first  noticed,  the  "  wet 
and  soggy  ground  "  retards  indefinitely  the  natural  decay 
of  the  bodies  buried  in  it,  and  the  specific  germs  of 
malignant  fevers — cholera,  diphtheria,  etc., — are  liable  to 
find  their  way  into  the  wells.  As  may  have  been  the 
case  here,  a  place  of  burial  in  the  country  is  not  infre- 
quently a  gift,  or  is  purchased  because  it  is  cheap,  being 
unfit  for  cultivation.  If  an  endemic  of  fatal  disease 
invades,  it  is  accepted  as  a  visitation  of  God,  and  not  as 
a  judgment  upon  the  people  who  do  violence  to  His 
laws.  All  our  country  towns  are  subject,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  to  the  more  common  forms  of  epidemic  disease. 
We  will  not  venture  the  assertion  that  they  have  their 
cause  in  the  graveyard  ;  it  cannot  be  questioned,  how- 


DANGERS   OF   COUNTRY   GRAVEYARDS.  I47 

ever,  that  it  may,  by  its  emanations  and  the  pollution  of 
the  water,  intensify  prevalent  disease,  increase  its  infec- 
tious power,  and  convert  a  mild  into  a  widely-fatal 
epidemic. 

The  country  towns  in  the  vicinity  of  our  great  cities 
have  become  suburban  ;  small  villages  have  become  con- 
siderable cities.  Their  population,  as  it  increases,  crowds 
upon  the  old  and  venerated  burying-places,  and  they  are 
enlarged  to  meet  their  increasing  interments.  The 
authorities  of  such  towns  are  stimulated  by  their  growth 
to  add  to  their  attractions  by  improvements  in  drainage, 
by  abating  nuisances  and  by  conveniences  of  various  sorts; 
but  when,  as  has  occurred  in  some  towns,  they  are  warned 
of  the  dangers  of  the  graveyards,  and  importuned  to 
abate  them,  they  let  them  alone  to  receive  their  annually 
increasing  dead,  to  exhale  their  noxious  miasm,  to  pollute 
the  water  supply,  and  to  become  nuisances  of  a  daily 
increasing  power  for  evil. 

The  most  of  the  governments  in  Europe  have  prohib- 
ited intra-mural  interments  absolutely.  In  our  own 
country  the  disposal  of  the  dead  has  not  been  a  subject  of 
legislation  by  State  legislators,  to  whom  it  belongs.  The 
regulation  of  burials  has  been  left  to  municipal  authority, 
liable  to  be  governed  in  its  action  by  local  influences. 

The  question  how  and  where  the  dead  shall  be  disposed 
of  is  one  eminently  sanitary.  It  is  a  civil  affair.  The 
religion  of  all  peoples  modifies  and  renders  traditionally 


148  INTERMENT  A  SUBJECT  OF   LEGISLATION. 

sacred  their  methods  of  burial ;  but  among  Christian 
nations  "  such  is  the  harmony  always  existing  between 
religion  and  sound  policy,  that  what  is  acknowledged  as 
decorous  and  useful  by  one  is  also  commanded  and  pre- 
scribed by  the  other."*  The  dead  should  be  so  buried 
that  the  living  may  not  suffer.  The  Legislatures  of  our 
States  adopt  laws  of  quarantine  to  protect  the  people 
from  the  importation  and  consequent  spread  of  contagion. 
The  State  of  New  Jersey,  perhaps  others,  provides  by  a 
general  law  against  the  infection  of  cattle.  Our  law- 
makers do  not  recognize  as  they  should,  the  fearful  dangers 
of  the  inhumation  of  human  bodies,  dead  from  malignant 
disease  with  its  specific  germs — germs  which  float  in  the 
air  we  breathe,  and  the  water  we  drink ;  germs  which 
neither  boiling  nor  freezing  can  destroy ;  germs  which, 
after  being  buried  in  the  earth  for  centuries,  when  brought 
to  the  surface  by  excavations  produce  a  pestilence,  and 
which,  like  vegetable  seed  germs  buried  for  ages  in  the 
earth,  when  brought  to  the  surface,  bring  forth  fruit, 
each  after  its  kind.f 


*  Ordinance  of  Archbishop  of  Toulouse,  forbidding  interments  in  churches,  and 
enacted  by  the  State  (1765). 

t  Numerous  instances  are  on  record  where  seeds  have  grown  which  have  lain 
dormant  for  ages.  Their  vitality  seems  to  be  imperishable,  while  they  remain  in 
situations  in  which  nature  has  deposited  them.  When  a  forest  old  enough  to 
have  witnessed  the  mysteries  of  the  Druids  is  felled,  trees  of  other  species  spring 
in  their  place,  and  when  they  in  their  turn  fall  before  the  axe,  the  germs  which 
their  predecessors  have  shed,  perhaps  centuries  before,  sprout  up  and  restore  the 
original  growtli. 

Earth  brouglit  up  from  wells  and  other  excavations  in  primitive  soil,   soon 


CREMATION   AND   DESICCATION.  I49 

The  disposal  of  the  dead  by  cremation  or  by  chemical 
destruction,  has  not  been  considered  in  this  treatise. 
Each  method,  like  the  slower  processes  of  decomposition 
in  the  earth,  resolves  the  body  into  its  original  elements. 
If  good  hygiene  made  it  necessary,  the  former  methods 
would  doubtless,  be  accepted  as  reasonable  and  proper. 
In  our  own  country  the  question  of  their  adoption  upon 
sanitary  grounds  is  not  an  urgent  one.  It  may  become  so  in 
the  generations  to  come.  Inhumation  commends  itself  to 
the  traditional  sentiments  of  the  people,  and  an  innovation 
upon  these  is  not  demanded. 

Rural  cemeteries,  properly  regulated,  under  wise  con- 
trol, guarded  by  good  laws,  and  permanently  extra-mural, 
afford  all  necessary  protection  to  the  public  health. 


produce  plants  unlike  those  of  the  \oq?\  flora,  and  in  some  cases  species  entirely 
new.     Earth  and  Man,  by  Geo.  P.  Marsh . 

In  Modena,  Italy,  excavations  made  through  a  part  of  the  city  where  the 
victims  of  the  plague  were  buried  300  hundred  years  before,  caused  an  immediate 
outbreak  of  the  disease  in  the  neighborhood. 


INDKX. 


PAGE. 

Aaron,  Burial  of 12 

Abel,  Burial  of 1 1 

Altars  and  Chapels  for  Funeral  rites 43 

Transferred  from  the  Catacombs  to  the  cities 44 

Ananias  and  Saphira,  Burial  of 42 

Armies  affected  by  putrid  matter  in  soil 87 

Asiatic  Cholera no 

Assyrian  Sepulchres ...       21 

Athens — burial  without  the  walls 27 

"  "  "         "     within 27 

Autopsy,  Effect  of 67 

Basilics,  Origin  of 43 

Battle  grounds 52 

Black  Bird,  Burial  of 38 

Black  Hawk,  Burial  of 39 

Burials  a  subject  of  legislation 148 

Burial  of  the  Plymouth  Pilgrims 141 

Burning 18 

Greek 25 

of  Patroclus 25 

Pile  described 28 

North  American  Indians 39 

Cadaver,  the  first  human 12 

Canaan,  Burial  in,  varied 15 

Carcases  on  Battle  Fields 52 

Catacombs,  Roman 42 

Catarrhal  Fever  converted  into  Putrid  Fever  in  Saulieu.   . .       53 

Cemeteries,  Rural 117  sqq. 

Sanitary  Requisites 119  sqq. 

Greenwood 133 


152  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Chadwick's  Report 60 

Conclusions  of 80 

Cholera 110-113 

Christian  Burial  early , 41 

Church — First  burial  within 44 

Church  Burial,  edict  against 45 

Churches  first  built  in  second  century 43 

Churches  and  Cities,  Interments  in  the  sixth  century 46 

Forbidden  by  Charlemagne   47 

Clay  and  gravelly  soil,  comparative  effects  of,  upon  decom- 
position  122,  131 

Clark,  Adam,  on  Burial  in  cities 58 

Coffins 134 

In  early  times 1 34  sqq. 

Bursting  of 69 

Hayden's  "  Earth  to  Earth" 142 

Constantine,  Edict  of  toleration 44 

Burial  of 44 

Corpse,  Treatment  of,  before  burial 143 

Crucifixion,  Graves  opened  at . .  42 

Dead  thrown  to  wild  beasts  in  Persia 31 

Decomposition  in  towns  always  evil 104 

Most  dangerous  stages  of 144 

Of  a  corpse,  process  of   ...  129 

Decay  and  Putrefaction  comparative  effects 77  sq. 

Disease  and  Death  caused  by  putrid  exhalations 52  sqq. 

Malignant  from  one  corpse 55  sq. 

Diseases,  Early,  same  as  now 1 3  sq. 

After  the  Flood 13 

Mosaic  Statutes  on 13 

Dissecting  Room  Exhalations 75  sq. 

Earth  to  Earth  Coffin 142 

Edom,  Tombs  in 22 

Eleazer,  Burial  of 12 

Elijah,  Burial  of 17 

Embalmment,  Egyptian 16  sq. 

Of  Our  Lord 19  sq. 

Of  Lazarus ...    1 9  sq. 


INDEX.  153 

PAGE. 

Embalmment  of  Jacob  and  Joseph 18 

Jewish 19 

Indian 37 

Eskimo  Burial 41 

Eustace  St.,  Church,  Paris 52 

Ezekiel,  Description  by,  of  modes  of  Assyrian  burial  and  of 

countries  adjacent 20  sq. 

Fevers,  a  catarrhal  fever  rendered  malignant 53 

Yellow,  in  United  States 95  sqq. 

Malignant,  in  Egypt 52 

Typhus,  from  church  miasm 75 

Fellmongers  affected  by  putrid  matter 68 

Field  of  crime 28 

Fields  for  culture,  Burials  in  forbidden 27 

Germs  Disease 1 14-148 

In  vaults 51 

Of  Fever  and  Cholera 1 26 

Of  Anthrax 125 

Of  Plague  in  Modena 149 

Grasshoppers,  Putrefaction  of,  in  Ethiopia 52 

Graves  opened  at  the  Crucifixion 42 

Graves  and  spaces   132 

Graves,  Deep,  no  protection  from  miasm 88 

Grave-diggers — Effect  of  their  calling 66  sqq. 

Graveyards  in  New  York 99  sqq. 

In  the  country 144  sqq.,  147 

Soil  disturbed  in 57 

Greeks,  Customs  among  the 25 

Ground,  Burial  in  the  bare 137  sq. 

Hannibal,  Death  of 59 

Herod,  Funeral  of  King 19 

Holy  places  polluted  by  dead  bodies 15 

Horace,  Tomb  of 30 

Indians,  North  American 34 

Indian  burial 35  sq. 

Inhumation,  Earliest  method 12 

Interments  within  cities 116 

30 


154  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

IiUerments,  Effect  of  in  New  Orleans 107 

Intra-mural  burial  in  the  United  States 94 

Introduction 9 

Insects,  minute,  generated  by  putrefaction 56 

Aquatic  of  the  Nile 52 

From  opening  a  Revolutionary  grave-pit loi 

Jacob  the  Patriarch  buried ...  12 

Joseph,  the  bones  of,  carried  to  Shechem 12 

Juggernaut,  Pilgrimages  to,  effect  of 1 1 1  sq. 

Kings,  Roman,  Burial  of 28 

Latimer,  Bishop,  on  burial  in  cities 5^ 

Machpelah,  Cave  of 12 

Moecenas,  Tomb  of 30 

Mausoleums  on  the  Roman  Highways 29 

Miasm  Decaying,  Concentration  of 78 

Of  graves  and  effects 70 

Middle  Dutch  Churchyard,  New  York 99  sq. 

Miller,   Dr.   Edward — Report  of  on  prohibiting  burials  in 

New  York 103 

Miracles  at  the  Tombs  of  Saints   51 

Miriam,  Burial  of 12 

Moses,  Burial  of 12 

Mosaic  Laws,  Sanitary 49 

Mummies,  Egyptian 16-25 

Indian 38 

Nain,  Son  of  Widow  of 42 

Nile,  Aquatic  Insects  of 52 

Numa,  Tomb  of 28 

Ozone — Effect  of  its  absence  on  Epidemic  Cholera 105  sq. 

Parsee  Burial 31 

Patroclus,  Funeral  pile  of 25 

Parliament  Houses,  Air  of,  polluted  by  miasm 89 

Persian   Burial 31 


INDEX.  155 

PAGE. 

Pestilence 115 

In  camp  of  Constantine 52 

In  Poland 52 

From  one  corpse 55  sq. 

From  exhalations  of  dead  bodies 50-52  sqq. 

From  pilgrimages  to  shrines in  sqq. 

In  Pompey's  army 52 

In  Egypt  and  Ethiopia 52 

Of  small-pox 51 

Of  Plague 149 

Caused  by  sieges 52 

Pilgrims,  Burial  of  Plymouth 141 

Potter's  field,  New  York,  in  1814 97 

Preservation  of  dead  bodies  by  cold 129 

Putrescence,  Animal   49,  63,  71 

Roman  customs ....    28 

Removal  of  a  dead  body.  Result  of 103 

Sarah,  Burial  of 12 

Saul  buried 18 

Saviour,  Embalmment  and  resurrection  of 20 

Shechem,  Joseph  buried  in 12 

Siege  of  Agrigentum 59 

Sepulchres 21 

Assyrian 21 

Syria 15 

Theban 23  sqq. 

Silence,  Towers  of 31  sqq. 

Sion  Mt.,  Tombs  in 22 

Small-pox  from  animal  putrescence 51 

Smell,  The  ^ense  of,  a  sentinel  against  putridity 71 

Of  putrid  miasm  destroyed  by  constant  exposure 

to  it 82 

Putrid  from  drains  through  graveyards 84  sqq. 

Spices  and  perfumes  in  burial 19 

Tanners  affected  by  putrid  matter 68 

Twelve  Tables,  prohibited  intra-mural  burials 28,  43 


156  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Trinity  churchyard,  New  York,  described 96  sqq. 

Emanations  from 114 

Vault  opened,  death  from 66,  102  sq. 

Veterinary  anatomy,  study  of,  injurious 74 

Wells  and  springs  polluted 85  sqq.,  1 2 1  sqq. 

1  n  New  York 98 

Weehawken  cemetery,  Decay  of  bodies  within 131 

Woolen  swathing  of  the  dead 140 

Yellow  Fever 95 

In  New  Orleans 107  sqq. 

In  Norfolk 109 

In  New  York 95-98  sqq. 


CATALOGUE  NO.  1. 


SEPTEMBER,  1883. 


CATALOGUE 


OF 


MEDICAL,  DENTAL,  PHARMACEUTICAL 


AND 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS, 


PUBLISHED    BY 


P.  BLAKISTON.  SON  &  CO.. 

(SUCCESSORS    TO    LINDSAY    &    BLAKISTON) 

1012   WALNUT    STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


These  publications  may  be  had  through  Booksellers  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  or  any  book  will  be  sent,  postpaid,  by  the  publisher,  upon  receipt  of  price,  oj 
will  be  forwarded  by  express  C.  O.  D.  upon  receiving  a  remittance  of  25  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
ordered  to  cuvei'  e.Kpress  charges. 


ROBERTS'  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE. 

A  New  Enlarged  Edition, 

JUST  READY. 

Uniformly  commended  by  the  Profession  and  the  Press. 

A.  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MEDI- 
CINE.    By  Frederick  T.  Roberts,  M.D.,  .AI.R.C.P.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor and  Teacher  of  Cliuieal  Medioiue  in  University  College  Hospital, 
Assistant  Piiysician  in  Bronipton  Consumptive  Hospital,  &c.,  &c. 
Third   Edition.     Octavo.     Price,  in  cloth       ....       85.00 

leather       ....         6.00 
The  Publishers  are  in  receipt  of  numerous  letters  from  Professors  in  the  various  Med- 
ical Schools,  unironniy  commending  this  book;  whilst  the  ibflowing  extracts  from  the 
Medical  Press,  both  English  and  American,  fully  attest  its  superiority  and  great  value 
not  only  to  the  student,  but  also  to  the  busy  ^(ractitioner. 

This  is  a  good  book,  yea,  a  very  good  book.  It  is  not  so  full  in  its  Pathology  as  "  Aitken," 
so  charniing  in  its  composition  as  "  Watson,"  nor  so  decisive  in  its  treatment  as  "  Tamier;  " 
but  it  is  more  compendious  tliaii  any  of  thorn,  and  therefore  more  useful.  We  know  of  no 
other  work  in  the  English  language,  or  in  any  other,  for  that  :natter,  which  comjjetes  with 
this  one.  — ISdinburgh  Medical  Journal , 

We  have  much  pleasure  in  expressing  our  sense  of  the  author's  conscientious  anxiety  to 
make  his  work  a  faithful  representation  of  modern  medical  beliefs  and  practice.  In  this  he 
has  succeeded  in  a  degree  that  'rili  earn  the  gratitude  of  very  many  stuaents  and  practition- 
ers: it  is  a  remarkable  evidence  of  industry,  experience,  and.  research. — Praclitiener. 

That  Dr.  Roberts's  book  is  admirably  fitted  to  supply  the  want  of  a  good  hand-book  of 
medicine,  so  much  felt  by  pvery  medical  student,  does  not  admit  of  a  question.  —  Slude.nu' 
Journal  and  Hospital  Gazette. 

Dr.  Roberts  has  accomplished  his  task  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  has  produced  a  work 
mainly  intended  for  students  that  will  be  cordially  welcomed  by  them  ;  most  of  the  observa- 
tions on  treatment  are  carefully  written  and  worthy  of  attentive  study ;  the  arrangement  is 
good,  and  the  style  clear  and  simple.  —  London  Lancet. 

It  contains  a  vast  deal  of  capital  instruction  for  the  student,  much  valuable  matter  in  it  to 
commend,  and  merit  enough  to  insure  for  it  a  rapid  sale. — London  Medical  Times  and  Gazette. 

There  are  great  excellencies  in  this  book,  which  will  make  it  a  favorite  both  with  the 
accurate  student  and  busy  practitioner.  The  author  has  had  ample  experience. — Richmond 
and  Louisville  Journal. 

We  confess  ourselves  most  favorably  impressed  with  this  work.  Tl:e  author  has  performed 
his  task  most  creditably,  and  we  cordially  recommend  the  book  to  our  readers.  —  Canada 
Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

A  careful  reading  of  the  book  has  led  us  to  believe  that  the  author  has  written  a  work 
more  nearly  up  to  the  times  than  any  that  we  have  seen  ;  to  the  student,  it  will  be  a  gift  of 
priceless  value.  — Detroit  Review  of  Medicine. 

Our  opinion  of  it  is  one  of  almost  unqualified  praise.  The  style  is  clear,  and  the  amount  of 
useful  and,  indeed,  indispensable  information  which  it  contains  is  marvellous.  We  heartily 
recommend  it  to  students,  teachers,  and  practitioners.  — Boston  Med.  arid  Surgical  Journal. 

It  is  of  a  much  higher  order  than  the  usual  compilations  and  abstracts  placed  in  the  hands 
of  students.  It  embraces  many  suggestions  and  hints  from  a  carefully  compiled  hospital 
experience ;  the  style  is  clear  and  concise,  and  the  plan  of  the  work  very  judicious. — 3Iedical 
and  Surgical  Reporter. 

It  is  unsurpassed  by  any  work  that  has  fallen  into  our  hands  as  a  compendium  for  stndents 
preparing  for  examination.    It  is  thoroughly  practical  and  fully  up  to  the  times. —  The  Clinic. 

We  find  it  an  admirable  book.  Indeed,  we  know  of  no  hand-book  on  the  subject  Just  now 
to  be  preferred  to  it.  We  particularly  commend  it  to  students  about  to  enter  upon  the 
practice  of  their  profession.  —  St.  Louis  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

If  there  is  a  book  in  the  whole  of  medical  literature  in  which  so  much  is  said  in  so 
few  words,  it  has  never  come  within  our  reach,  ^k)  clear,  terse,  and  j)ointetl  is  the  style  ; 
so  accurate  the  diction,  and  so  varied  the  matter  of  this  book,  that  it  is  almost  a  dictionary 
of  practical  medicine.  —  Chicago  Medical  Journal. 


Mr.  Presley  Blakiston  having  on  January  ist,  1882,  purchased  all  the 
interest  of  the  late  firm  of  Lindsay  &  Blakiston  will  continue  the  publication 
and  sale  of  Medical  and  Scientikic  Books  at  No.  1012  Walnut  Street,  Phil- 
adelphia, having  associated  with  him  his  son,  Kenneth  M.  Blakiston,  and 
Frank  W,  Robinson,  under  the  firm-name  of 

P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO. 


MEDICAL,  DENTAL.  SCIENTIFIC 


AND 


PHARMACEUTICAL  BOOKS 


PUBLISHED    BY 


P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO.    PHILADELPHIA. 

i!®="Any  book  in  this  catalogue  can  be  had  from  or  through  booksellers  in  the  principal  cities  in 
the  IJnited  States,  or  will  be  forwarded  free,  by  mail  or  express,  upon  receipt  of  the  price  by  tho 
publisher. 


AMERICAN  HEALTH  PRIMERS. 

Edited  by  W.  W.  Keen,  m.d.     Complete  in  12  volumes,  handsomely  bound. 
Price,  in  cloth  binding,  50  cents  ;  paper  covers,  30  cents. 


I.  Hearing  and  How  to  Keep  It.     With  illus- 
trations.    By  Chas.  H.  Burnett,  m.d. 
n.  Long  Life,  and  How  to  Reach  It.     By  J.  Q. 
Richardson,  m.d. 

III.  The  Summer  and  Its  Diseases.     By  Jas.  C. 

Wilson,  m.d. 

IV.  Eyesight,  and  How  to  Care  for  It.     With  il- 

lustrations. By  George  C.  Harlan,  m.d. 
V.  The  Throat  and  the  Voice.    With  illustrations. 

By  J.  SoLis  Cohen,  m.d. 
VI.  The  Winter  and  Its  Dangers.    By  Hamilton 

Osgood,  m.d. 


VIII. 


IX. 


VII.  The  Mouth  and  the  Teeth.     With  illustra- 
tions.    By  J.  W.  White,  m.d.,  d.d.s. 
Brain   Work   and   Overwork.      By  H.   C. 

Wood,  Jr.,  m.d. 
Our  Homes.     With  illustrations.    By  Henry 

Hartshorne,  m.d. 
The  Skin  in  Health  and  Disease.     By  L.  D. 

BULKLEY,  M.D. 

Sea  Air   and   Sea  Bathing.     By  John   H. 
Packard,  m.d. 
XII.  School  and  Industrial  Hygiene.     By  D;  L. 
Lincoln,  m.d. 


X. 


XL 


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sense,  these  volumes  are  worthy  of  all  the  compli- 
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subject  treated  the  specific  study  of  their  lives." — 
TVfw  i'ori  Sun. 


AMERICAN  PSYCHOLOGICAL  JOURNAL. 

Issued  by  the  National  Association  for  the  Protection  of  the  Insane  and  Pre- 
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Single  numbers  50  cents  ;  per  annum,  S2.0C 


p.  B LA  K IS  TON,  SOX  &-  CO.'S 


ACTON,  THE  REPRODUCTIVE  ORGANS. 

The  Functions  and  Disorders  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  in  Childhood, 
Youth,  Adult  Age  and  Advanced  Life,  considered  in  their  Physiological,  Social 
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Cloth.  $2.00 

"  In  the  work  now  before  us,  all  essential  detail  upon  its  subject  matter  is  clearly  and  scientifically  given.  \Vc 
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regards  the  consideration  of  the  topics  in  question  as  beyond  the  duties  of  the  medical  practitioner." — TAt 
London  Lanat. 

"  On  the  subjects  of  Impotence  and  Spermatorrhoea,  those  bugbears  ot  so  many  weak  and  foolish  persons,  and 
sources  of  inexhaustible  wealth  to  the  quack  fraternity,  Mr.  Acton  discourses  with  good  sense,  and  indigiuintly 
exposes  the  nefarious  tricks  of  the  scoundrels  who,  on  the  pretence  of  curing  a  disease  which  often  exists  only  in 
im.igination,  extract  enormous  sums  from  their  unwary  victims.  He  seems  to  regard  the  spermatorrhoea-phobia, 
as  we  may  term  it,  to  be  a  species  of  monomania  ;  but  he  judiciously  advises  that  to  a  patient  laboring  under  this 
form  of  mental  malady,  the  tone  adopted  should  be  one  of  sympathy  and  attention  ;  and  that  by  tne  employment 
of  appropriate  moral  and  therapeutical  means,  a  healthy  and  hopeful  tone  of  mind  be  restored. —  The  Medical 
Times. 

AGNEW,  ON  THE  PERINEUM  AND  FISTULA. 

Lacerations  of  the  Female  Perineuni  and  Vesico-vaginal  Fistula.  Their  His- 
tory and  Treatment.  With  many  Illustrations.  By  D.  Hayes  Agnew,  m.d., 
Professor  of  Surgery,  University  of  Pennsylvania.     8vo.  Cloth,  Price  $1.25 

So  many  applications  having  been  made  for  these  papers,  as  originally  issued, 
the  author  has  thought  best,  after  a  thorough  revision,  to  place  them  before  the 
profession  in  book  form. 

ALLEN,  COMMERCIAL  ORGANIC  ANALYSIS. 

An  Introduction  to  the  Practice  of  Commercial  Organic  Analysis.     By  Alfred 
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ALLAN,  FEVER  NURSING. 

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By  James  W.  Allan,  M.D.     i2mo.     Illustrated.  Price  .75 

ALLINGHAM,  DISEASES  OF  THE  RECTUM.       Illustrated. 

Fistula,  Haemorrhoids,  Painful  Ulcer,  Stricture,  Prolapsus,  and  other  Diseases 

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F.R.C.s.     Fourth  Edition,  enlarged.  Price,  Paper  covers,  .75;  Cloth,  $1.25 

^  London  Edition,  thick  paper  and  larger  type,  $2jO0. 

"He  is  in  charge  of  the  only  hospital  in  the  world  I        "This  book  h.is  always  been  a  great  f.ivorite,  and 

(St.   Marks)  devoted    exclusively  to  diseases   of  the  ]    deservedly  so.     It  is  practical  in  tone  and  character, 

rectum,  and  he  is  recognized,  both  in  this  country  and  magisterial   in   its  teaching,  and  valuable  in  showing 

in   Europe,  as   the  highest  authority  upon  diseases  of  j    operative  results.     It    is   by   an   author    who,   as  an 

this  class." — Louisville  Medical  Herald.  authority,   has     no    superior." — Gailiard's    Medical 

1    yournal. 

"  No  book  on  this  special  subject  can  at  all  approach    I  "  It  is,  as   indeed  the  verdict  of  the  profession  has 

Mr.  Allingham's  in  precision,  clearness  and   practical    |  already  pronounced  it,  one  of  the  very   best  works  on 

good  sense." — London  Medical  Times  and  Gazette.        j  Disease.'  of  the    Rectum." — American    Journal   oj 

I  M,-diial  Scienci-. 

ALTHAUS,  MEDICAL  ELECTRICITY. 

A  Treatise  on  Medical  Electricity,  Theoretical  and  Practical,  and  its  Use  in 
the  Treatment  of  Paralysis,  Neuralgia,  and  other  Diseases.  By  Julius  Althaus, 
M.D.     Third  Edition,  Enlarged.     246  Illustrations.     8vo.  Pi  ice  56.00 

In  revising  this  new  edition  the  author  has  carefully  brought  each  section  up 
with  the  latest  knowledge  of  the  subject. 


PUBLICA  TIONS.  5 


ANSTIE,  STIMULANTS  AND  NARCOTICS. 

With  special  researches  on  the  Action  of  Alcohol,  Ether  and  Chloroform  on 
the  Vital  Organism.     By  Francis  E.  Anstie,  m.d.      8vo.  Trice  jJs.oo 

"  He  is  an  original  worker  antl  indi,-pencl>;nt  tliinkcr.  His  opinions  and  conclusions  are  valuable,  and  cannot 
be  neglected." — American  Medical  youtnal. 

ATTHILL,  DISEASES  OF  WOMEN. 

Clinical  Lectures  on  Diseases  Peculiar  to  Women.  By  Lombe  Atthill,  m.d. 
5th  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  with  numerous  illustrations.     i2mo.     Cloth. 

Price  ^1.25 

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"  The  work  is  one  of  great  value  to  the  general  practitioner." — American  yourna!  of  Obstetrics. 

AITKEN'S  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE.     New  Edition. 

The  Science  and  Practice  of  Medicine.  By  William  Aitken,  m.d.,  f.r.s. 
London,  Professor  of  Pathology  in  the  Army  Medical  School,  etc.  Seventh 
Edition.  To  a  large  extent  rewritten  ;  enlarged,  remodeled  and  carefully  revised 
throughout.  In  Two  Volumes.  196  Engravings  on  Wood,  and  a  Map  showing 
the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Diseases,  and  Copious  Index.     Octavo. 

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BALFOUR,  ON  THE  HEART  AND  AORTA. 

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"The  whole  work  reflects  much  credit  on  its  author,  and  firmly  establishes  his  reputation  as  an  authority  on  the 
important  diseases  of  which  he  treats." — London  Practitioner . 

BARTH    AND    ROGER,    AUSCULTATION    AND    PERCUS- 
SION. 

A  Manual  for  the  Student.  By  M.  Barth  and  M.  Henri  Roger.  Trans- 
lated from  the  6th  French  Edition.     i2mo.  Price  $1.00 

BIBLE  HYGIENE; 

Or,  Health  Hints.  By  a  Physician.  This  book  has  been  written,  first,  to  im- 
part in  a  popular  and  condensed  form  the  elements  of  Hygiene  ;  second,  to  show 
how  varied  and  important  are  the  Health  Hints  contained  in  the  Bible,  and  third, 
to  prove  that  the  secondary  tendency  of  modern  Philosophy  runs  in  a  parallel 
direction  with  the  primary  light  of  the  Bible.     i2mo.       Paper,  .50;  Cloth,  $1.00 

"  The  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  is  quite  abreast  of  the  present  day,  and  is  so  clear  and  free  from  unne- 
cessary technicalities  that  readers  of  all  classes  may  peruse  it  with  satisfaction  and  advantage." — Edinburgh 
Medical  yournal. 

BIDDLE,  MATERIA  MEDICA.      Ninth    Edition. 

( Contains  all  the  changes  in  the  Sixth  Revision  of  the  New  Pharmacopoeia.') 
Materia  Medica.  For  the  Use  of  Students  and  Physicians.  By  the  late 
Prof.  John  B.  Biddle,  m.d..  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  in  Jefferson  Medi- 
cal College,  Philadelphia.  The  Ninth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised,  and  in 
many  parts  rewritten,  by  his  son,  Clement  Biddle,  m.d.,  Assistant  Surgeon, 
U.  S.  Navy,  assisted  by  Henry  Morris,  m.d.  Containing  all  the  additions 
and  changes  made  in  the  last  revision  of  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia. 
The  Botanical  portions  have  been  curtailed  or  left  out,  and  the  other  sections, 
on  the  Physiological  action  of  Drugs,  greatly  enlarged.     Octavo, 

Cloth,  ^4.00;  Leather,  $4.75 


"  The  additions  are  valuable,  and  we  must  congrat- 
ulate the  author  upon  having  improved  what  was 
already  so  useful  a  work,  both  to  the  student  and  phy- 
sician."— Phila.  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter. 

"  It  has  been  the  design  of  the  author  to  present  in 
his  work  a  te.\t-book  for  the  student.  It  is  brief,  and 
yet  sufficiently  comprehensive.     His  style  is  clear  and 


"  One  thing  that  particularly  recommends  this  work 
to  the  student  is,  that  the  book  is  not  so  large  as  to  dis- 
courage and  cause  him  to  feel  thnt  it  is  impossible  for 
him  to  get  over  it  and  so  much  else  in  the  short  time 
before  him." — St.  Louis  Medical  and  Surgical  your- 
nal. 

"  It  contains,  in  a  condensed  form,  all  that  is  valu- 


yet  succinct.  He  covers  the  ground — covers  it  well,  |  able  in  materia  medica,  and  furnishes  the  medical 
and  cumbers  his  work  with  nothing  superfluous." —  student  with  a  complete  manual  on  this  subject." — 
Atlanta  Medical  and  Surgical  yournal.  !     Canada  Lancet. 


6  P.  BLAKlSrON,  SON  &*  CO.'S 

BRE\VING,  DISTILLING,  ETC. 

Tlie  Brewer,  Distiller  :incl  Wine  Minufdcturcr ;  a  Handbook  for  all  interested 
in  the  Manufacture  and  Trade  of  Alcohol  and  its  Compounds.  Edited  by  John 
(iardner,  Kellow  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London.    Illustrated.   Cloth,  j;i.75 

Synopsis  of  Contents. — Alcohol,  its  Preparations,  etc. ;  Alcoholometry  ; 
Brewing  and  Beers;  Varieties  of  Malt  Liquors;  Malt;  Raw  Grain;  Sugar; 
Hops;  Arrangement  of  a  Brewery;  Different  Processes;  Chemical  Changes 
during  Washing,  Boiling,  Cooling,  Fermentation,  etc.,  etc. ;  Storing  and  Clari- 
fying, Porters,  Ales  ;  Analysis  of  Beers,  Ciders,  Perry,  Mum  ;  Liquors  and  Cor- 
dials, giving  over  80  preparations.  Other  sources  of  Spirituous  Liquors ;  Dis- 
tillation of  Alcoholic  Liquors,  including  Rums,  Brandies,  Whiskies,  Gins.^etc. ; 
Wine  and  Wine  Making  ;  Tests  for  Adulterations  ;  Remarks  on  the  Cultivation 
of  Grapes,  etc.;  Imitation  of  Wines. 
BLOXAM.  CHEMISTRY, Inorganic  and  Organic.      Fifth  Edition. 

With  Experiments.  By  Charles  L.  Bloxam,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in 
King's  College,  London,  and  in  the  Department  for  Artillery  Studies,  Wool- 
wich.     Fifth  edition.     With  nearly  300  Engravings.     Cloth,  ;J4.oo;  Leather,  $ 5.00 

A  most  complete  Text-Book  for  Schools  and  Colleges. 

"  Professor  Bloxam  has  given  us  a  most  excellent  and  useful  practical  treatise.     His  666  pages  (now  700)  are 
crowded  with  facts  and  experiments,  nearly  all  well  chosen,  and  many  quite  new,  even  to  scientific  men 
It  is  astonishing  how  much  information  he  often  conveys  in  a  few  paragraphs.     We  might  quote  fifty  instances  of 
this . " — Chemical  News. 

BLOXAM,     LABORATORY  TEACHING.     Fourth  Edition. 

Progressive  Exercises  in  Practical  Chemistry.  By  Charles  L.  Bloxa.m, 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  King's  College,  London,  etc.  Fourth  edition.  With 
89  engravings.     i2mo.  Price  $1.75 

This  work  is  intended  for  use  in  the  Chemical  Laboratory,  by  those  who  are 
commencing  the  study  of  Practical  Chemistry.     It  contains: — 

I.  A  series  of  simple  Tables  for  the  analysis  of  unknown  substances  of  all 
kinds.  2.  A  brief  description  of  all  the  practically  important  single  substances 
likely  to  be  met  with  in  ordinary  analysis.  3.  Simple  directions  and  illustra- 
tions relating  to  Chemical  Manipulation.  4.  A  system  of  Tables  for  the  detec- 
tion of  unknown  substances  with  the  aid  of  the  Blowpipe.  5.  Short  instructions 
upon  the  purchase  and  preparation  of  the  tests  intended  for  those  who  have  not 
access  to  a  Laboratory. 

"  a  great  amount  of  valuable  practical  information  is  here  condensed  into  a  book  of  ifr>  pages,  such  as  only  a 
priictical  teacher  could  prepare.  ' — Neiv  England  ymirnal  of  Education. 

BRUEN.     PHYSICAL  DIAGNOSIS. 

A  Pocket  Book  of  Physical  Diagnosis,  for  Physicians  and  Students.  By 
Edward  T.  Bruen,  m.d.,  Asst.  Prof,  of  Clinical  Medicine,  University  of  Penn'a. 
Illustrated  by  Original  Wood  Engravings.     i2mo.    Extra  Cloth.  Price  $2.00 

BENNETT.     NUTRITION  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. 

A  Contribution  to  Hygiene  and  Clinical  Medicine.  By  J.  Henry  Ben- 
nett, M.D.     Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.     Cloth.  Price  $2.50 

HY   same    author. 

THE     TREATMENT    OF     PULMONARY     CONSUMPTION 
BY  HYGIENE,  CLIMATE  AND  MEDICINE. 

With  an  Appendix  on  the  Sanitaria  of  the  United  States,  Switzerland  and 
the  Balearic  Islands.     Third  Edition  much  Enlarged.  Price  ?2. 50 

"Any  physician  may  take  it  up  with  every  feeling  of  confidence  that  the  views  enunciated  by  the  author  will  be 
found  to  be  able,  honest  and  orthodox." — Medico- Ckirurgical  Rrview. 

BERKART,  ASTHMA. 

The  Pathology  and  Treatment  of  Asthma.  By  Joseph  B.  Berk  art,  m.d. 
Svo.  Price  52.50 


PUB  Lie  A  TIONS. 


BEALE   ON   SLIGHT  AILMENTS.     New  Edition.     Just  Ready. 

Slight  Ailments,  Their  Nature  and  Treatment,     By  Lionel  S.  Bkalk,  m.d., 

F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Practice,  King's  Medical  College,  London.     Second  Edition. 

Enlargeil  and  Illustrated..  Price,  Cloth,  ,^1.25  ;   Paper  covers,  .75  cents. 

Fine  Edition,  Heavy  Paper.  Extra  Cloth,  Price  ^1.75 

OUTLINE   OF   CONTENT.S. 

Introductory.    The  Tongue  in  Health  and  Slight  Ailments.    Appetite.    Nausea.    Thirst.     Hunger.     Indigestion, 

its  Nature  and  Treatment.     Constipation,  its  Treatment.     Diarrhoea.     Vertigo.     Oiddine.ss.      Biliousness.     Sick 

Headache.     Neuralgia.     Rheumatism.     The  Feverish  and  Inflammatory  State.     Of  the  Actual  Changes  in  Fever 

and  Inflammation,     Common  Forms  of  Slight  Inflammation,  etc.,  etc. 

"We  venture  to  say  that  among  the  numerous  medical  publications  issued  during  i88o,  there  has  been  none 
which  will  prove  more  useful  to  the  young  general  practitioner,  for  whom  it  is  really  intended,  than  this  volume, 
while  the  time  of  the  older  physician  might  be  much  more  unprofitably  spent." — American  yournal  of  Medical 
Science 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

ON  LIFE  AND  VITAL  ACTION  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. 

l2mo.  Price  $2.00 

THE  USE  OF  THE  MICROSCOPE  IN  PRACTICAL  MEDI- 
CINE. 

For  Students  and  Practitioners,  vi^ith  full  directions  for  examining  the  various 
secretions,  etc.,  in  the  Microscope.  Fourth  Edition.  500  Illustrations.  Much 
enlarged.     8vo.  Price  ^7.50 

"  We  have  before  us  Prof.  Beale's  work.  The  Micro-  I        "  As  a  microscopical    observer,  and  a  histological 
jfo/<?  z"«  j'V/ifa';V/«t',  a  book  which  it  gives  us  pleasure  to  manipulator,  his  (Dr.  Beale)  skill  and  eminence   are 
recommend  to  every  student  of  microscopy,  whether  he  generally  conceded." — Popular  Science  Monthly. 
be  a  physician  or  naturalist." — yournal  of  the  Frank- 
lin Institute,  Philadelphia.  \ 

HOW  TO  WORK  WITH  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

A  Complete  Manual  of  Microscopical  Manipulation,  containing  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  many  new  processes  of  investigation,  with  directions  for  examining  ob- 
jects under  the  highest  powers,  and  for  taking  photographs  of  microscopic 
objects.  Fifth  Edition.  Containing  over  400  Illustrations,  many  of  them  colored. 
Octavo.  Price  $7.50 

"The  Encyclopaedic  character  of  this  last  edition  of  Dr.  Beale's  well  known  work  on  the  Microscope  renders 
It  impossible  to  present  an  abstract  of  its  contents  ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  anything  in  his  department  upon  which 
the  physican  can  desire  such  information  will  be  found  here,  and  much  more  in  addition.  It  is,  moreover,  a  store- 
house of  facts,  most  valuable  to  the  physician,  and  is  indispensable  to  every  one  who  uses  the  microscope." — 
American  yournal  of  Medical  Science. 

BIOPLASM. 

A  Contribution  to  the  Physiology  of  Life,  or  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Physiology  and  Medicine,  for  Students.     With  numerous  Illustrations. 

Price  $2.25 
PROTOPLASM;  or  MATTER  AND  LIFE. 

Third  Edition,  very  much  enlarged.  Nearly  350  pages.  Sixteen  Colored 
Plates.  Part  i.  Dissentient.  Part  11.  Demonstrative.  Part  iii.  Suggestive. 
One  volume.  Price  ^3.00 

LIFE    THEORIES ;    Their  Influence   upon  Religious    Thought. 

Six  Colored  Plates.  Price  $2.00 

ONE  HUNDRED  URINARY  DEPOSITS, 

On  two  sheets,  for  the  Hospital,  Laboratory,  or  Surgery.  Each  Sheet  $1.00,  or 
on  Rollers,  Price  j?i.2  5 

BERNAY,  CHEMISTRY. 

Notes  for  Students  in  Chemistry.  Compiled  from  Fowne's  and  other  manuals. 
By  Albert  J.  Bernay,  pm.d.     Sixth  Edition.     i2mo.  Price  $1.25 

BENTLEY'S  STUDENTS'   BOTANY. 

The  Students'  Guide  to  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany.  By  Professor 
Robert  Bentley.     Illustrated  by  nearly  500  Wood  Engravings. 

/;/  Preparation. 


8  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &*  CO:S 


BEASLEY.     THE  BOOK  OF  PRESCRIPTIONS. 

Containing  over  3100  Prescriptions,  collected  from  the  I'mctice  of  the  most 
Eminent  Physicians  and  Surgeons — Knglish,  French  and  American ;  a  Com- 
pendious History  of  the  Materia  Mcdica,  Lists  of  the  Doses  of  all  Officinal  and 
Established  Preparations,  and  an  Index  of  Diseases  and  their  Remedies.  By 
Henry  Beaslly.     Sixth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Price  $2.25 

BY    SAME  AUTHOR. 

THE  DRUGGIST'S  GENERAL  RECEIPT-BOOK. 

Comprising  a  copious  Veterinary  Formulary;  numerous  Recipes  in  Patent 
and  Proprietary  Medicines,  Druggists'  Nostrums,  etc. ;  Perfumery  and  Cos- 
metics; Beverages,  Dietetic  Articles  and  Condiments;  Trade  Chemicals,  Scien- 
tific Processes,  and  an  Appendix  of  Useful  Tables.    Eighth  Edition.    Price  $2.25 

THE  POCKET  FORMULARY  and  Synopsis  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Pharmacopceias. 

Comprising  Standard  and  Approved  Formula:  for  the  Preparations  and  Com- 
pounds   Employed   in    Medical    Practice.      Tenth    Edition.     511    pp.      i8mo. 

Price  $2.25 
BENTLEY  AND  TRIMEN'S  MEDICINAL  PLANTS. 

A  New  Illustrated  Work,  containing  full  botanical  descriptions,  with  an  account 
of  the  properties  and  usesof  the  principal  plants  employed  in  medicine,  especial 
attention  being  paid  to  those  which  are  officinal  in  the  British  and  United  States 
Pharmacopoeias.  The  plants  which  supply  food  and  substances  required  by  the 
sick  and  convalescent  are  also  included.  By  R.  Bentley,  f.r.s..  Professor  of 
Botany,  King's  College,  London,  and  H.  Trime.n,  m.b.,  f.h.s.,  Department  of 
Botany,  British  Museum.  Each  species  illustrated  by  a  colored  plate  drawn 
from  nature.     In  Forty-two  parts.     Eight  colored  plates  in  each  part. 

Price  $2  each,  or  handsomely  bound  in  4  volumes.  Half  Morocco,  $90.00 

"  It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  new 
plants  that  are  here  delineated.  The  result  is  a  work 
which,  from  all  points  of  view,  is  a  credit  to  the  scientific 
literature  of  the  day." — London  Lancet. 

"It  is  an  indispensable  work  of  reference  to  every  one 
interested  in  pharmaceutical  Botany." — London  Phar- 
?>taceutical  journal. 

BRUBAKER,  PHYSIOLOGY. 

A  Compend  of  Physiology  specially  adapted  for  the  use  of  Students  and  Phy- 
sicians.    "  No,  4,  ? Quiz-Compend  Series  ?"     i2mo,  Cloth.  Price  $1. 00 

"  Dr.  Brubaker  deserves  the  hearty  thanks  of  medical  students  for  his  Compend  of  Physiology.  He  lias 
arranged  the  fundamental  and  practical  principles  of  the  science  in  a  particularly  inviting  and  accessible 
manner.     I  have  already  introduced   the  work   to  my  class." — Maurice  N.  Miller,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of 

J'liysiology,  Medical  Department  University  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

BYFORD.     DISEASES  OF  WOMEN.     New  Revised  Edition. 

The  Practice  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  as  applied  to  the  Diseases  of  Women. 
By  W.  H.  Byford,  a.m.,m.d.,  Professor  of  Obstetrics  and  The  Diseases  of  Wo- 
men and  Children,  in  the  Chicago  Medical  College.  Third  Edition.  Revised 
and  Enlarged,  much  of  it  rewritten,    with  numerous  additional  illustrations. 

Price,  in  Cloth  $5.00;  Leather,  56.00 

"  The  treatise  is  as  complete  a  one  as  the  present  "  The  author  is  an  experienced  writer,  an  able  teach- 

state  of  our  science  will  admit  of  being  written.     We  cr  in  his  department,  and  h.is  embodied  in  the  present 

commend  it  to  the  diligent  study  of  every  practitioner  work  the  results  of  a  wide  field  of  practical  observa- 

and  student,  as  a  worjc  calculated  to  inculcate  sound  tion.    We  have  not  had  time  to  read  its  page*  critically, 

principles    and    lead    to    enlightened   practice. — Ne'M  \    but  freely  commend  it  to  all  our  readers,  as  one  of  the 

York  Medical  Record.  I    most  valuable  practical  works  issued  from  the  Ameri- 

I    can  press." — Chicago  Medical  E.xamincr. 

BY    .SAME   AliTHOR. 

ON  THE  UTERUS.     The  Chronic  Inflammation  and  Displace- 
ment of  the  Unimpregnated  Uterus. 

An  Enlarged  Edition,  with  Illustrations.     8vo.  Price  $2.50 

"A  good  book  from  a  good  man." — American  Journal  Medical  Science . 

"  It  is  a  sensible,  practical  work,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  read  with  interest  and  profit." — Boston  Medical  and 
Surgical  journal. 


"  This  work  may  be  recommended  as  a  most  useful 
one  to  druggists,  and  all  who  desire  to  be  familiar 
with  the  Botany  of  Medicinal  Plants." — Druggists' 
Circular. 

"  The  work  when  complete  (it  is  now  complete) 
will  be  the  most  valuable  compend  of  Medical  Botany 
ever  published." — Boston  your tial  of  Chemistry. 


PUBLICA  TIONS. 


BRAUNE,  TOPOGRAPHICAL  ANATOMY. 

An  Atlas  of  Topographical  Anatomy.  Thirty-four  Full-page  Plates,  Photo- 
graphed on  Stone,  from  Plane  Sections  of  Frozen  Bodies,  with  many  other  illus- 
trations. By  WiLHELM  Braune,  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  Leipzig.  Translated 
and  Edited  by  Edwakd  Bellamy,  f.r.c.s..  Lecturer  on  Anatomy,  Charing 
Cross  Hospital,  London.     Quarto.     Price,  Cloth,    ^8.00  ;  Half  Morocco,  ;Jio.oo 

"As  a  whole  the  work  cannot  fail  to  meet  with  a  hearty  reception  by  every  progressive  student  of  the  human 
body.  To  the  surgeon  it  is  a  contribution  to  the  study  ol  topographical  anatomy  which  needs  to  be  known  to  be 
properly  appreciated  To  such  practitioners  who  reside  in  large  cities,  where  anatomy  can  be  studied  upon  the 
cadaver,  it  will  afford  a  v.iluable  aid,  while  to  those  who  are  without  such  means  of  study  it  is  an  almost  indis- 
pensable addition  to  a  working  library." — New  York  Medical  Record. 

"  We  commend  the  book  most  heartily  to  the  Profession." — American  yournal  of  Medical  Science. 

BUCKNILL  AND  TUKE  ON  INSANITY. 

A  Manual  of  Pyschological  Medicine :  containing  the  Lunacy  Laws,  the 
Nosology,  CEtiology,  Statistics,  Description,  Diagnosis,  Pathology  (including 
morbid  Histology),  and  Treatment  of  Insanity.  By  John  Charles  Bucknill, 
M.D.,  F.R.S.,  and  Daniel  Hack  Tuke,  m.d.,  f.r.c.p.  Fourth  Edition,  much 
enlarged,  with  twelve  lithographic  plates,  and  numerous  illustrations.     Octavo. 

Price  $8.00 

"  We  have  read  no  book  in  any  language,  and  certainly  none  in  English,  which   ought  to  be  preferred  to    this 
for  a  text  book,  by  those  who  wish  to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  subject. — Edinburgh  Medical  yournal. 
"  We  can  heartily  commend  the  work. — American  yournal  of  Insanity. 

BURDETT,  HOSPITALS. 

Pay  Hospitals  and  Paying  Wards  throughout  the  World.  Facts  in  support 
of  a  rearrangement  of  the  system  of  Medical  Relief.  By  Henry  C.  Burdett. 
Svo.  Price  $2.25 

"  Mr.  Burdett  displays  and  discusses  the  whole  scheme  of  Hospital  accainsaodation  with  a  comprehensive 
understanding  of  its  nature  and  extent. — American  Practitioner. 

BY   SAME  AUTHOR. 

COTTAGE  HOSPITALS. 

General,  Fever,  and  Convalescent :  their  Progress,  Management,  and  Work. 
Second  Edition,  rewritten  and  much  Enlarged,  with  many  Plans  and  Illustra- 
tions.    Crown  Svo.  Price  $4.50 

Contents. — Chap. — i.  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Cottage  Hospital  System.  2.  Comparative  Success  of 
Treatment  in  large  and  small  Hospitals.  3.  Finance.  4.  Cottage  Hospital  Construction  and  Sanitary  Arrange- 
ments. 5.  The  Medical  and  Nursing  Departments.  6.  Domestic  Supervision  and  General  Management.  7. 
Cottage  Hospital  Appliances  and  Fittings.  8.  Cottage  Fever  Hospitals.  9.  Midwifery  in  Cottage  Hospitals.  10. 
Remunerative  Paying  Patients.  11.  Convalescent  Cottages.  12.  Cottage  Hospitals  in  America.  13.  Mortu- 
aries. 14.  A  more  Detailed  Account  of  certain  Cottage  Hospitals,  with  Plans  and  Elevations.  15.  Selected  and 
Model  Plans  criticised  and  compared,  with  a  detailed  description  of  various  Hospitals.  16.  Peculiarities  and 
Special  Features  in  the  Working  of  Cottage  Hospitals.  With  an  Appendix  containing  much  statistical  and  useful 
information. 

"  Mr.  Burdett'sbook  contains  a  mass  of  information,  statistical,  financial,  architectural ,  and  hygienic,  which  has 
already  proved  of  great  practical  utility  to  those  interested  in  cottage  hospitals,  and  we  can  confidently  recom- 
mend this  second  edition  to  all  who  are  in  search  of  the  kind  of  information  which  it  contains." — Lancet. 

BUZZARD,  NERVOUS  DISEASES. 

Clinical  Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System.  By  Thos.  Buzz.a.rd, 
M.D.     Illustrated.     Octavo.  Price  $5.00 

CARPENTER,  THE  MICROSCOPE.     Sixth  Edition. 

The  Microscope  and  its  Revelations.  By  W.  B.  Carpenter,  m.d.,  f.r.s. 
Sixth  Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged,  with  over  500  Illustrations.     Price  $5.50 


"  Not  only  the  student  of  medicine,  but  amateurs, 
and  others  interested  in  the  study  of  natural  history, 
will  find  this  volume  one  of  great  practical  value." — 
N^iu  York  Medical  yournal. 

"  It  is  by  far  the  most  complete  and  useful  treatjse 
now  accessible  to  the  student." — The  Technolo^t. 


"As  a  text  book  of  Microscopy  in  its  special  relation 
to  natural  history  and  general  science,  the  work  before 
us  stands  confessedly  first,  and  is  alone  sufficient  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  ordinary  student." — Anurican 
yjurnal  of  Microscopy. 


10  p.  BLAKISTON,  SON  6-  CO:S 


CARTER,  EYESIGHT.     New  Edition  now  ready. 

Eyesight,  Good  and  Bad.  A  Treatise  on  the  Exercise  and  Preservation  of 
Vision.  By  Rouekt  Bkudenell  Carter,  f.r.c.s.  Second  Edition,  with  50 
Illustrations,  Test  Types,  etc.     i2mo.  Price,  Cloth,  $1.25 

"  It  is  written  in  a  lucid  and  .igrccablc  style,  conveying  an  easily  comprehensible  account  of  the  structure  of 
the  eye  and  the  function  of  vision,  and  gives  a  description  of  the  principal  anomalies  of  the  latter,  at  the  same 
time  inculcating  such  salutary  advice  as  may  be  beneficial  for  the  preservation  of  sight." — London  Medical 
Times  and  Gazette. 

"  There  is  much  wholesome  advice  given  on  the  '  Care  of  the  Eyes  in  Infancy  and  Childhood,'  and  on  this 
account,  if  no  other,  the  book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  parent  and  teacher." — St.  Louis  Courier  of 
Medici tu. 

CARTER,  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE. 

Elements  of  Practical  Medicine.  By  Alfred  H.  Carter,  m.d.,  London, 
Member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  ;  Physician  to  the  Queen's  Hos- 
pital, Birmingham,  etc.     Crown  8vo.  Price  $3.00 

"  The  object  of  this  volume  is  to  provide  the  student  with  a  general  introduction  to  the  study  of  Medicine, 
and  to  bring  the  essentials  of  the  subject,  so  far  as  required  for  the  ordinary  medical  qualifications,  within  the 
grasp  of  those  who  have  not  the  time  or  leisure  to  read  the  larger  and  more  elaborate  works  on  Practice." — 
Pre/ace. 

"  Dr.  Carter  is  favorably  known  as  a  London  physician  of  learning  and  experience,  and  a  clear  writer.  He 
aims  to  give  a  judicial  epitome  of  practical  medicine,  and  this  is  a  well-prepared  book." — Philadelphia  Medi- 
cal and  Surgical  Reporter. 

CULLINGWORTH,  ON   NURSING.     Illustrated. 

A  Manual  of  Nursing,  Medical  and  Surgical.  By  Charle.s  J.  Ci'LLING- 
worth,  M.D.,  Physician  to  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Manchester,  England.  With 
eighteen  Illustrations.     i2mo.  Cloth,  fi.oo 

CAZEAUX'S  GREAT  OBSTETRICAL  TEXT-BOOK. 

A  Theoretical  and  Practical  Treatise,  including  the  Diseases  of  Pregnancy 
and  Parturition.  By  P.  Cazeaux,  Adjunct  Professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Medi- 
cine of  Paris,  etc.  etc.  Revised  and  Annotated  by  S.  Tarnier,  Former  Clini- 
cal Chief  of  the  Lying-in-Hospital,  etc.,  etc.  Sixth  American  from  the  Seventh 
French  Edition.  Translated  by  Wm.  R.  Bullock,  m.d.  One  volume,  Royal 
Octavo,  over  iioo  pages,  with  Lithographic  and  175  other  Illustrations  on 
Wood.  Price,  Cloth,  s;6.oo;  Leather,  §7.00 

M.  Cazeaux's  great  work  on  Obstetrics  has  become  classical  in  its  character,  and 
almost  an  Encyclopaedia  in  its  fulness.  Written  expressly  for  the  use  of  students  of 
medicine,  and  those  of  midwifery  especially,  its  teachings  are  plain  and  explicit, 
presenting  a  condensed  summary  of  the  leading  principles  established  by  the  masters 
of  the  obstetric  art,  and  such  clear,  practical  directions  for  the  management  of  the 
pregnant,  parturient,  and  puerperal  states,  as  have  been  sanctioned  by  the  most 
authoritative  practitioners,  and  confirmed  by  the  author's  own  experience.  Collect- 
ing his  materials  from  the  writings  of  the  entire  body  of  antecedent  writers,  carefully 
testing  their  correctness  and  value  by  his  own  daily  experience,  and  rejecting  all  such 
as  were  falsified  by  the  numerous  cases  brought  under  his  own  immediate  observa- 
tion, he  has  formed  out  of  them  a  body  of  doctrine,  and  a  system  of  practical  rules, 
which  he  illustrates  and  enforces  in  the  clearest  and  most  simple  manner  possible. 


"The  edition  before  us  is  one  of  unquestionable  ex- 
cellence. Every  portion  of  it  has  undergone  a  thorough 
revision,  and  no  little  modification  ;  while  copious 
and  important  additions  have  been  made  to  nearly 
every  part  of  it.  It  is  well  and  beautifully  illustrated 
by  numerous  wood  and  lithographic  engravings,  and 
in  typographical  execution  will  bear  a  favorable  com- 
parison with  other  works  of  the  sameclass."y</«fr/ira« 
Medical  yournal. 

"The  translation  of  Dr.  Bullock  is  remarkably  well 
done.  We  can  recommend  this  work  to  those  espe- 
cially interested  in  the  subject  treated,  and  can  espe- 
cially recommend  the  American  edition." — Medical 
Times  and  Gazette. 

"  We  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  it  is  now  the  most 
complete  and  best  treatise  on  the  subject  in  the  Eng- 
lish langu.ige." — Buffalo  Medical  yournal. 


"  It  is  unquestionably  a  work  of  the  highest  excel- 
lence, rich  in  information,  and  perhaps  fuller  in  details 
than  any  text-book  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 
The  author  has  "not  merely  treated  of  every  question 
which  relates  to  the  business  of  parturition,  but  ho  has 
done  so  with  judgment  and  ability." — British  and 
Foreign  Rfedico-Chirurgical  Revie^u. 

"  No  work,  in  our  estimation,  bears  any  comparison 
to  Cazi-aux,  in  its  entire  perfectness  ;  and  if  we  were 
called  upon  to  rely  alone  on  one  work  on  accouch- 
ments,  our  choice  would  fall  upon  the  book  before  us 
without  any  kind  of  hesitation." —  H'cst.  your,  of  Med- 
icine and  Surgery. 

"  We  know  of  no  work  on  this  .ill-important  branch 
of  our  profession  that  we  can  commend  to  the  student 
or  practitioner  as  a  safe  guide  befcrc  :hjc" — Chicagt 
Medical  yournal. 


PUBLICA  TIONS. 


CHARTERIS,  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE. 

Hand-Book  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine.  By  M.  Charteris,  m.d.,  Member 
of  Hospital  Staff  and  Professor  in  University  of  Glasgow.  With  Microscopic  and 
other  illustrations.  Price  §1.25 

"  Wc  have  not  often  met  with  a  book  whick  can  be  so  confidently  recommended  to  physicians  or  men  in  general 
practice." — Lancet. 

"  The  style  in  which  it  is  written  is  clear  and  attractive.  The  illustrations  are  a  marked  feature  in  it.  It  can 
be  recommended  as  a  very  reliable,  handy  book,  weU  adapted  for  ready  reference." — New  Remedies. 

CHAVASSE  ON  CHILDREN. 

The  Mental  Culture  and  Training  of  Children.     By  Pye  Henry  Chavasse. 

i2mo.  Price,  Paper  covers,  .50;  Cloth,  $1.00 

The  mental  culture  and  training  of  children  is  of  immense  importance.     Many 

children  are  so  wretchedly  trained,  or  rather  not  trained  at  all,  and  so  mismanaged, 

that  a  few  thoughts  on  this  subject  cannot  be  thrown  away,  even  upon  the  most 

careful. 

CLAY  ON  OBSTETRIC  SURGERY.     Third  Edition. 

A  complete  Hand-Book  of  Obstetric  Surgery,  with  Rules  for  every  Emergency 
and  Descriptisns  of  the  more  difficult  as  well  as  the  every  day  operations.  By 
Charles  Clay,  m.d.,  with  numerous  Illustrations.  From  the  Third  London 
Edition,     i2mo.  Paper  Covers,  .75  ;  Cloth,  $1.25 

"  It  is  a  useful  and  convenient  book  of  reference ;  the  illustrations  are  good,  and  the  book  will  be  found  of  value 
to  the  student  and  young  practitioner,  as  well  as  to  the  skilled  Obstetrician." — American  yournal  of  Obstetrics. 

CLEVELAND,  POCKET  DICTIONARY. 

A  Pronouncing  Medical  Lexicon,  containing  correct  Pronunciation  and  Defi- 
nition of  terms  used  in  medicine  and  the  collateral  sciences.  By  C.  H.  Cleve- 
land, m.d.     Twenty-ninth  Edition.     i6mo. 

Price,  Cloth,  75  cents  ;  Tucks  with  Pocket,  $1.00 
This  is  a  most  convenient  size  for  the  pocket,  and  contains  all  the  principal  words 
in  use,  together  with  rules  for  pronunciation,  abbreviations  used  in  prescriptions,  list 
of  poisons,  their  antidotes,  etc. 

COHEN,  INHALATION.     Enlarged  Edition. 

Inhalation,  its  Therapeutics  and  Practice,  including  a  Description  of  the  Ap- 
paratus Employed,  etc.  By  J.  SoLis  Cohen,  m.d.  With  cases  and  Illustrations. 
A  New  Enlarged  Edition.     8vo.  Price  $2.50 

"  The  book  has  the  merit  of  containing  much  information  that  cannot  be  found  elsewhere." — N.  Y.  Medical 
Journal. 
"  One  of  the  best  treatises  we  have  seen  on  this  subject." — Medical  Times  and  Gazette. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

CROUP, 

In  its  Relation  to  Tracheotomy.     8vo.  Price  $1.00 

CLARKE,  SURGERY. 

Outlines  of  Surgery  and  Surgical  Pathology,  including  the  Diagnosis  and 
Treatment  of  Obscure  and  Urgent  Cases.  By  F.  LeGross  Clarke,  f.r.s. 
Second  Edition.     8vo.  Price  $2.00 

COBBOLD,  PARASITES. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Entozoa  of  Man  and  Animals,  including  some  account  of 
the  Ectozoa.  By  T.  Spencer  Cobbold,  m.d.,  f.r.s.  With  85  illustrations. 
8vo.  Price  $5.00 


12  /'.  BLAKISTOX,  SON  6f  CO.'S 


COLES,  THE  MOUTH.     Third  Edition,  just  ready. 

Deformities  of  the  Mouth,  Congenital  and  Acquired,  with  Their  Mechanical 
Treatment,  By  Oaklkv  Coles,  d.d.s.  Third  Edition.  83  Wood  Engravings 
and  96  Drawings  on  Stone.     8vo.  I'rice  $^.^0 

"  Aliogcihcr  we  must  hcarlily  congratulate  Mr.  Coles  on  this  creditable  completion  of  a  work  which  cannot 
|ut  redound  to  his  credit  uhercvcr  ii  is  known." — liritisk  youriuil  of  Dental  Science. 
"  We  recommend  this  book  to  the  study  of  both  surgeons  and  dentists  " — London  Lancet. 

\\\    S.\.MK   AUTllOK. 

A  MANUAL  OF  DENTAL  MECHANICS. 

Containing  much  information  of  a  practical  nakirc,  upon  the  Materials  and 
Appliances  used  in  Mechanical  Dentistry.  For  Practitioners  and  Students. 
Second  Edition,  with  140  Illustrations.     i2mo. 

THE  DENTAL  STUDENT'S  NOTE-BOOK. 

A  new  Edition.     i6mo.  Price  Jl.oo 

CORMACK,  CLINICAL  STUDIES. 

Illustrated  by  Cases  Observed  in  Hospital  and  Private  Practice.  By  Sir 
John  Rose  CoRMACK,  W.D.,  K.B.,  etc.   Illustrated.   2  vols.    1,127pp.   Price  g 5. 00 

COURTY,  THE  UTEi^US,  OVARIES,  ETC. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Uterus,  Ovaries,  and  Fallopian 
Tubes.  By  Prof.  A.  CouRTV,  of  Montpellier,  France.  Translated  from  the 
Third  Edition  by  his  pupil  and  assistant,  Agnes  McLaren,  m.d.,  m.k.q.cp.i. 
With  a  Preface  by  J.  Matthews  Duncan,  m.d.,  ll.d.,  f.r.s.,  Obstetric  Physi- 
cian to  Saint  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  London.  With  431  Illustrations.  One 
Vol.,  Svo.     Price,  in  Handsome  Cloth,  $6.00 ;  Full  Sheep,  Raised  Bands,  S7.00 

OUTLINE  OF   CONTENTS. 
TPODUCTIOM. — On  the    Anatomy,   Physiology,  and  Teratology  of  the  Organs  of  Generation.     Part  I. — 
General  Survey  of  Uterine  Diseases.      Diagnosis  of  Uterine   Diseases  in  General ;   Treatment  of 
Uterine  Diseases  in  General ;  General  Characteristics  of  Uterine  Diseases.    Part  ii. — Uterine  Diseases 
IN  Detail.     Functional  Disorders;  Changes  of  Position;    Morbid   States  without  Neoplasm;    Organic 
Alterations  ;  Diseases  of  the  Uterine  Appendages ;  Pelvic  Hemorrhages  and  Peri-uterine  Haematocele ; 
Cy.'t  of  the  Ovary  and  Genito-pelvic  Tumor  ;  Sterility,  etc.,  etc.     Index 
"  Courty's  work   has,  since  its  first  publication,  been  recognized  everywhere.     In  France,  its  position  is 
attested  by  the  sale  of  two  editions,  numbering,  I  am  told,  ten  thousand  copies,  and  by  the  appearance  of 
another,  the  third  edition.     I  recommend  to  the  careful  study  of  my  professional  brethren  a  book  which  has 
already  been  crowned  by  the  Institute  of  France." — y.  Matthews  Duncan. 

CURLING,  ON  THE  TESTIS. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Testis,  Spermatic  Cord,  and 
Scrotum.  By  T.  B.  Curling,  m.d.,  f.r.s.  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged  and  Il- 
lustrated.    Svo.  Price  §5.50 

"  We  believe  this  work   to  be  the  most  trustworthy  that  can  be  consulted  in  this  Department  of  Surgerj-, 

his  pages  abound  with  valuable  suggestions  and  cautions   that  mark  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the 

subject." — London  Practitioner. 

COOPER'S  SURGICAL  DICTIONARY. 

A  Dictionar}'  of  Practical  Surgery  and  Encyclopaedia  of  Surgical  Science. 
By  Samuel  Cooper.  New  Edition,  brought  down  to  the  present  time.  By 
Samuel  A.  Lane,  f.r.c.s.,  assisted  by  various  eminent  Surgeons.  In  two 
vols.  Price  $12.00 

COTTLE,   ON  THE  HAIR. 

The  Hair  in  Health  and  Disease.  By  E.  W.  Cottle,  m.d.  Partly  from  the 
notes  of  the  late  George  Nayler.     i8mo. 

CORFIELD,    DWELLING  HOUSES. 

The  Sanitary  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Dwelling  Houses.  By  W. 
H.  Corfield,  M.A.,  M.D.  Enlarged  Edition,  with  Plans  and  Illustrations. 
l2mo.  Price  $1.25 


PUBLICATIONS.  13 


COULSON,  THE  BLADDER.     Sixth  Edition. 

Diseases  of  the  Bladder  and  Prostate  Gland.  By  Walter  J.  Coulson,  f.r.c.s. 
Sixth  Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged,  with  22  Engravings.     8vo.      Price  §6.40 

CRIPPS,  THE  RECTUM. 

Cancer  of  the  Rectum.  Its  Pathology,  Diagnosis  and  Treatment.  By.  W. 
Harrison  Cripps,  f.r.c.s.     Illustrated  by  Plates.     8vo.  Price  52.40 

DAY  ON  CHILDREN.     Second  Edition.     Just  Ready. 

The  Diseases  of  Children.  A  Practical  and  Systematic  Treatise  for  Practi- 
tioners and  Students.  By  Wm.  H.  Day,  m.d.  Second  Edition.  Rev/ritten  and 
very  much  Enlarged.     8vo.     752  pp.  Price,  Cloth,  $5.00;  Sheep,  $6.00 


"  Dr.  Day  brings  to  hi>i  t.nsk  a  large  experience,  and 
evidences  a  very  thorough  knowledge  of  ilie  literature, 
native  and  foreign,  pertaining  to  this  special  branch  of 
mediciije.  The  book  h.-is  been  written  with  great  care, 
and  the  author  is  a  good  writer.  The  publisher's  part 
of  the  task  has  also  been  excellently  performed." — 
Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  journal. 


"  Believing  the  work  well  adapted  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  Student  as  well  as  the  Practitioner,  I  will  recom- 
mend it  to  the  classes  of  Rush  Medical  College." — 
DeLeskie  Miller,  M.D.,  Cliicago. 

"  On  the  whole,  we  must  confess  we  are  pleased  with 
this  book  and  can  heartily  recommend  it — a  recommen- 
dation which  it  does  not  appear  to  need,  as  it  has 
already  reached  its  second  edition." — American  Jour- 
nal oy  Medical  Science. 

DAY  ON  HEADACHES.     Fourth  Edition. 

The  Nature,  Causes,  and  Treatment  of  Headaches.  Fourth  Edition.  Illus- 
trated.    By  Wm.  Henry  Day,  m.d.     Octavo. 

Paper  Covers,  75  cents;     Cloth,  $1.25 
Summary  of  Contents. — Headache  from  Cerebral  Anaemia,  Cerebral  Hyperasmia,  Sympathetic,  Congestive, 
Dyspeptic  or  Bilious  Headaches,  Headache  from  Plethora,  from  E,\haustion,  from   Change  in  Cerebral  Tissue, 
from  Affections  of  the  Periosteum,  Nervous  and  Nervo-Hyperaemic   Headache,  To.xKmic,  Rheumatic,  Arthritic 
or  Gouty  Headache,  Neuralgic  Headache,  and  Headaches  of  Childhood,  Early  and  Advanced  Life. 
"  Well  worth  reading.     The  remarks  on  treatment  are  very  sensible." — Boston  Medical  and  Surg,  yjurnal. 

DALBY,  ON  THE  EAR. 

The  Diseases  and  Injuries  of  the  Ear.  By  W.  B.  Daley,  m.d..  Surgeon  and 
Lecturer  on  Aural  Surgery,  St.  George's  Hospital.     With  Illustrations.     i2mo. 

Price  $1.50 

'A safe  and  readable  introduction  to  aural  surgery."  |        "The  lectures   occupy  226   pages,  are  clearly  and 

Medical  Press  and  Circular.  consisely  written,  contain  a  number  ofgood  illustrations, 

"  Dr.  Dalby  has  presented  us  with  a  very  readable  1     ^"d  are  well  worth  the  careful  study  of  both  student 

litde  book,  which  is  destined  to  render  much  service  in  =>"<?   practitioner.     To  aurists  the  work  will   be   most 

i.\i^%3.\'\v.zo{&^r?,."— N.  Y.  Medical  Journal.  I    welcome  and  valuable.    —Specialist. 

DILLINGBERGER,     WOMEN     AND     CHILDREN'S     DIS- 
EASES. 

A  Hand-Book  of  the  Treatment  of  the  Diseases  Peculiar  to  Women  and  Chil- 
dren.    By  Dr.  Emil  Dillingberger.     i2mo.  Price  $1.50 

"It  is  a  magnum  inparvo.  The  style  is  simple,  clear,  lucid,  and  free  from  theoretical  discussion.  No  one  will 
regret  the  small  outlay  for  this  volume. — Richmond  and  Louisville  Medical  Journal. 

DUNGLISON,  THE  PHYSICIAN'S  REFERENCE  BOOK. 

The  Practitioner's  Ready  Reference  Book  ;  a  Guide  in  Office  and  Bedside  Prac- 
tice ;  containing  Therapeutical  and  Practical  Hints,  Dietetic  Rules,  and  General 
Information.     By  Richard  J.  Dunglison,  m.d.     Fourth  Edition.     8vo. 

Price  $3.50 

"  We  can  heartily  commend  this  book  as  one  that  I  "  The  demand  for  a  second  edition  so  soon  after  the 
must  prove  very  useful  to  the  general  practitioner."—  i>ublication  of  the  first  volume  shows  that  this  work  is 
The  McdiciU  Record.  \    appreciated  by  the  profession." — Canada  Lancet. 

DURKEE,  VENEREAL  DISEASES.     Sixth  Edition. 

Gonorrhoea  and  Syphilis.  By  Silas  Durkee,  m.d.  Sixth  Edition.  Revised 
and  Enlarged,  with  Portrait  and  Eight  Colored  Illustrations.     8vo.     Price  $3.50 

"  We  may,  finally,  recommend  Dr.  Durkcc's  book  .as  eminently  practic.-'.l,  well  written,  full  of  excellent  counsel, 
and  worthy  of  being  cons  ilted  by  every  member  of  the  profession.  A  late  number  of  the  London  Medical  Times 
and  Gazette  also  speaks  of  the  book  in  terms  of  the  highest  approval." — B.ston  Medical  and  Surgical  JournaL 


14  P.  BLAKISTOW  SON  &'   CO.'S 


DAGUENET,  OPHTHALMOSCOPY. 

A  Manual  of  Ophthalmoscopy,  for  the  Use  of  Students.  By  Dr.  Daguenet. 
Translated  from  the  French,  by  Dr.  C.  S.  Jeaffreson,  f.r.c.s.e.  Illustrated. 
l2mo.  Price  $1.50 

"Its  portable  siie,  the  condensed  nature  of  its  text,  and  the  admirably  systematic  arrangement  of  its  contcnu. 

render  it  gxtrt.mely  useful  as  a  pucWct  iiniiual  for  S\.\id<:i\\.i.—  Trans!alor'sJ''rc/ace. 

DOBELL,  WINTER  COUGH  AND  CATARRH. 

On  Winter  Cough,  Catarrh,  Bronchitis,  Emphysema,  Asthma,  etc.  By 
Horace  Dobell,  m.d.,  Lecturer  at  the  Royal  Hospital  for  Diseases  of  the 
Chest.     Third  Edition.     With  Colored  Plates.     8vo.  Price  $350 

BY    SAME   AUTHOR. 

ON  LOSS  OF  WEIGHT.     Revised  Edition. 

Blood  Spitting  and  Lung  Disease.  Colored  Frontispiece  of  Lung.  Tabular 
Map,  etc.     Second  Edition  Enlarged.     8vo.  Price  54.00 

DOMVILLE,  ON  NURSING. 

A  Manual  for  Hospital  Nurses  and  others  engaged  in  attending  to  the  sick. 
4th  Edition.     With  Recipes  for  Sick  Room  Cookery,  etc.  Price  .75 

DRUITT'S  MODERN  SURGERY.     Eleventh  Edition. 

The  Surgeon's  \'ade  Mecum;  a  I\L^nual  of  Modern  Surgery.  By  ROBERT 
Druitt,  f.r.c.s.  Eleventh  Enlarged  Edition,  with  369  Illustrations.  864  pp. 
1878.  Price  $5.00 

This  is  a  most  complete,  accurate,  and  trustworthy  Hand,  or  Text-Book  of  Sur- 
gery. Unrivaled  as  a  book  for  the  Student.  Fully  illustrated,  and  brought  up  to 
the  present  state  of  the  science.     In  use  in  many  Medical  Colleges. 

DULLES,  ACCIDENTS. 

What  to  Do  First,  In  Accidents  and  Poisoning.  By  C.  W.  Dulles,  .m.d. 
Second  Edition,  Enlarged,  with  new  Illustrations.  Cloth,  .75 

"  Its  usefulness  entitles  it  to  a  wide  and  permanent  j  "  So  plain  and  sensible  that  it  ought  to  be  introduced 

circulation." — Boston  Gazette.  I  into    every    female     seminary. — Evening    Chronicle, 

"  A  complete  guide  for  sudden  emergencies. — Phila-  |  Pittsburgh, 

delphia  Ledger.  \ 

EDWARDS,  BRIGHT'S  DISEASE.     New  Edition. 

How  a  Person  Affected  with  Bright's  Disease  Ought  to  Live.  By  Jos.  F.  Ed- 
wards, M.D.     Second  Edition.     i2mo.  Price  .75 

"  Physicians,  as  well  as  laymen,  will  find  the  work   interesting,  and  will  obtain  many  valuable  hints  as  to  the 
proper  hygiene  to  be  observed  in  this  disease." — Cincinnati  Medical  News. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

CONSTIPATION.     New  Edition. 

Plainly  Treated  and  Relieved  Without  the  Use  of  Drugs.  Second  Edition. 
i2mo.  Price  .75 

MALARIA. 

Malaria:  What  It  Means;  How  to  Escape  It;  Its  Symptoms;  When  and 
Where  to  Look  for  It.     i2mo.  Price  .75 

VACCINATION  AND  SMALL-POX. 

Showing  the  Reasons  in  favor  of  Vaccination,  and  the  Fallacy  of  the  Argu- 
ments Advanced  against  it,  with  Hints  on  the  Management  and  Care  of  .SmaH- 
Pox  patients.     i6mo.  Price  .50 

These  are  invaluable  little  treatises  upon  subjects  that  enter  painfully  into  the 

life  experiences  of  a  large  majority  of  the  human  family.  Dr.  Edwards  shows  not 

only  how  they  may  be  avoided,  but  in  plain  and  simple  language  he  tells  those 
already  afflicted  with  them  how  they  may  find  relief. 


PUB  Lie  A  TIONS. 


'5 


ELLIS,  DISEASES  OF  CHILDREN. 

A  Practical  Manual  of  the  Diseases  of  Children,  with  a  Formulary.     By  Ed- 
ward Ellis,   m.d.      Late    Physician   to   the   Victoria   Hospital    for   Children, 


London.     Fourth  Edition  Enlarged.     Now  Ready. 


Price  53.00 


BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

WHAT  EVERY  MOTHER  SHOULD  KNOW. 

i2mo.  Price  .75 

"  It  is  only  too  true  that  our  children  have  to  dodge  through  the  early  part  of  life  as  through  a  labyrinth.  We 
must  be  thankful  to  meet  with  such  a  sensible  guide  for  them  as  Dr.  Ellis." — Pall  Mall  Gazette. 

FLUCKIGER,  THE  CINCHONA  BARKS. 

The  Cinchona  Barks  Pharmacognostically  Considered.  By  Professor  Fried- 
RiCH  Fluckiger,  of  Strasburg.  Translated  by  Frederick  B.  Power,  pii.d., 
formerly  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy,  now  Pro- 
fessor of  Materia  Medica  and  Pharmacy,  University  of  Wisconsin.  With  8 
Lithographic  Plates.     Royal  Octavo.  In  Press. 

FENNER,   ON  VISION,   Second  Edition,   Enlarged. 

Vision ;  Its  Optical  Defects,  the  Adaptation  of  Spectacles,  Defects  of  Accommo- 
dation, etc.  By  C.  S.  Fenner,  m.d.  With  Test  Types  and  74  Illustrations. 
Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.     8vo.  Price  §3.50 

FENWICK,  THE  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE. 

Outlines  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine.  With  Appropriate  Formulae  and  Illus- 
trations.    By  Samuel  Fenwick,  m.d..  Physician  to  the  London  Hospital.    i2mo. 

Price  $1.25 

"This  little  work  displays  a  sound  judgment  in  the  arrangement  of  its  subject  matter,  and  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  practice  of  medicine  possessed  by  but  few  writers,  and  should  have  been  elaborated  into  a  more 
comprehensive  work.     Of  all  the  hand-books  we  have  seen,  this  is  certainly  one  of  the  best." — Medical  Herald. 

"  It  is  an  eminently  practical  little  treatise,  pervaded  with  much  common  sense,  and  will  doubtless  be  found 
useful,  particularly  by  advanced  students." — Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 


BY   same   author. 

ON  THE  STOMACH. 

Atrophy  of  the  Stomach  and  Its  Effect  on  the  Nervous  Affections  of  the  Digest- 
ive Organs.     Svo.  Price  ^3.20 

FOTHERGILL,  ON  THE  HEART.     Second   Edition. 

The  Heart  and  Its  Diseases.  With  Their  Treatment.  Including  the  Gouty 
Heart.  By  J.  Milner  Fothergill,  m.d.,  Associate  Fellow  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  of  Philadelphia.      Second  Edition,    Entirely   Re-written.     Octavo. 

Price  $3.50 


"  It  is  the  best,  as  well  as  the  most  recent  work  on 
the  subject  in  the  English  language." — Medical  Press 
and  Ci^xular. 

"  The  most  interesting  chapter  is  undoubtedly  that 
on  the  gouty  heart,  a  subject  which  Dr.  Fothergill  has 
specially  studied,  and  on  which  he  entertains  views 
such  as  are  likely,  we  think,  to  be  generally  accepted 
by  clinical  physicians,  although  they  have  not  before 
been  stated,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  with  the  same 
breadth  of  view  and  extended  illustration." — British 
Medical  yournal. 


"  To  many  an  earnest  student  it  will  prove  a  Hght  in 
darkness ;  to  many  a  practitioner  cist  down  with  a 
sense  of  his  powerlessness  to  cope  with  the  rout  and 
demoralization  of  Nature's  forces,  a  present  help  in 
time  of  trouble." — Philadelphia  Medical  Times. 

"  The  work  throughout  is  a  masterpiece  of  graphie, 
lucid  writing,  full  of  good,  sound  teaching,  which  will 
be  appreciated  alike  by  the  practitioner  and  the  stu- 
dent."— Students'  Jozirjial. 


FULTON,  ON  PHYSIOLOGY. 

A    Text-Book   of    Physiology.     By   J.    Fulton,    m.d.,   Professor   at    Trinity 
Medical    College,    Toronto.      Second    Edition,  Illustrated   and   Revised.     Svo. 

Price  $4.00 


l6  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &-  CO.'S 


FLOWER,  DIAGRAMS  OF  THE  NERVES. 

Diagrams  of  the  Nerves  of  the  Human  Body.  Exhibiting  their  Origin, 
Divisions,  and  Connections,  with  their  Distribution  to  the  various  Regions  of  the 
Cutaneous  Surface,  and  to  all  the  Muscles.  By  William  H.  Flowek,  f.r.c.s., 
F.R.S.,  Hunterian  Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  and  Conservator  of  the 
Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  Third  Edition,  thoroughly  revised. 
With  six  Large  Folio  Maps,  or  Diagrams.     Royal  Quarto.  Price  S3. 50 

"  Admirably  arranged,  and  will  be  of  incalculable  aid  to  the  student  of  anatomy.  Each  of  the  large  »nd 
beautiful  plates  is  accompanied  with  explanatory  text." — jV.  V.  Medical  Record. 

"  The  nerves  and  ganglia  arc  clearly  represented.  The  impressions  are  well  made,  and  no  doubt  the  diagrams 
will  prove  useful." — Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter. 

FLAGG,  PLASTIC  FILLING. 

Plastics  and  Plastic  I-'illing;  As  Pertaining  to  the  Filling  of  all  Cavities  of  De- 
cay in  Teeth  below  Medium  in  Structure,  and  to  Difficult  and  Inaccessible 
Cavities  in  Teeth  of  all  Grades  of  Structure.  With  some  beautifully  executed 
Illustrations.  By  J.  Foster  Flagg,  d.d.s..  Professor  of  Dental  Pathology  and 
Therapeutics  in  Philadelphia  Dental  College.     Octavo.  Price  %i.oo 

FOX,  WATER,  AIR  AND  FOOD. 

Sanitary  Examinations  of  Water,  Air  and  Food,  By  Cornelius  B.  Fox, 
M.D.     94  Engravings.     8vo.  Price  S4.00 

FOSTER,  CLINICAL  MEDICINE. 

Lectures  and  Essays  on  Clinical  Medicine.  By  Balthazar  Fo.ster,  m.d. 
Illustrated.     8vo.  Price  JS3.00 

"No  one  can  peruse  the  thoughtful  comments  of  our  "  Jt  is  the  record  of  honest  work,  such  as  Dr.  Foster 

author  upon  every  subject  he  considers,  without  feeling  may  be  proud  of;  we  can  recommend  it  to  the  profession; 

himself  a  wiser  man  for  his  pains." — N.   Y.  Medical  it  may  be  read  with  profit  and  advantage  by  both  prac- 

yournal.  titioner  and  student. — Edinburgh  Medical  yournal. 

FOX,  ATLAS  OF  SKIN  DISEASES. 

Complete  in  Eighteen  Parts,  each  containing  Four  Chromo-Lithographic  Plates, 
v.'ith  Descriptive  Text  and  Notes  upon  Treatment.  In  all  72  large  colored  Plates. 
By  Tilbury  Fox,  m.d.,f.r.c.p..  Physician  to  the  Department  for  Skin  Diseases 
in  University  College  Hospital.     Folio  Size. 

Price  $1.00  each,  or  complete,  bound  in  cloth,  $20.00 

No  Atlas  of  Skin  Diseases  has  been  issued  in  this  country  for  many  years,  and  no 
complete  work  of  the  kind  is  now  procurable  by  the  Profession.  This  one,  brought 
out  under  the  editorial  supervision  and  care  of  Dr.  Tilbury  Fox  (the  most  distin- 
guished writer  on  Cutaneous  Medicine  now  in  the  English  language),  is  partly  based 
upon  the  classical  work  of  Willan  and  Bateman  (now  entirely  out  of  print),  but  com- 
pletely remodeled,  so  as  to  represent  fully  the  Dermatology  of  the  present  day. 

"  Preference  will  be  given  to  this  work  over  Hebra  ;  not  simply,  however,  because  it  is  a  home  production,  but 
by  reason  of  the  manner  of  its  execution,  the  excellent  delineation  of  disease,  and  the  natural  coloring  of  the  plates. 
.     The  letter-press  is  entirely  new.     In  the  accuracy  of  the  latter  the  subscriber  may  have  the  fullest  confi- 
dence, since  it  is  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Tilbury  Fox." — British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review. 

FRANKLAND,  WATER  ANALYSIS. 

Water  Analysis,  For  Sanitary  Purposes,  with  Hints  for  the  Interpretation  of 
Results.     By  E.  Frankland,  M.D.,  F.R.s.     Illustrated.     i2mo.  Price  $1.00 

"The  author's  world-wide  reputation  will  commend 
this  manual  to  all  sanitarians,  and  they  will  not  be  dis- 
appointed in  finding  all  the  essentials  of  the  important 
subject  of  which  it  treats." — The  Sanitarian. 


"The  work  is  one  which  physicians  practicing  ia 
the  country  and  in  villages  and  towns  remote  from 
medical  centres  cannotaflford  to  be  without." — Medical 
and  Surgical  Reporter. 


BY  SAME   AUTHOR, 

CHEMISTRY. 

How  to  Teach  Chemistry;  being  Six  Lectures  to  Science  Teachers.     Edited 
by  G.  George  Chaloz^er,  F.c.s.     Illustrated.     i2mo.  Price  $1.25 


PUBLICA  TIONS.  17 


GILLIAM'S  PATHOLOGY.     Illustrated. 

The  Essentials  of  Pathology;  a  Ilandl^ook  for  Students.  By  D.Ton  Gilliam, 
M.D.,  Professor  of  Physiology,  formerly  Professor  of  Pathology,  Starling  Medical 
College,  Columbus,  O.     With  47  Illustrations.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $2.00 

GAX.LABIN,  DISEASES  OF  WOMEN. 

The  Student's  Guide  to  the  Diseases  of  Women.  By  A.  Lewis  Gallabin,  M.A., 
M.D.,  F.R.c.p.     Illustrated  with  63  Engravings.      i2mo.  Price  $1.25 

r.V   SAME   AUTHOR. 

A  MANUAL  OF  MIDWIFERY. 

For  Students  and  Practitioners.     Illustrated.  In  Press. 

*^"  Prof.  Gallabin  is  Obstetric  Physician  to  Guy's  Hospital,  London,  and  occupies 
the  chair  of  Midwifery  in  that  Institution.  His  work  in  this  department  has  been 
noted  for  its  perfection  and  practical  character. 

GROSS,  BIOGRAPHY  OF  JOHN  HUNTER. 

John  Hunter  and  His  Pupils.  By  S.  D.  Gross,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Surgery  in 
Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.  With  a  beautifully  executed  full  length 
Portrait  of  the  Author  in  his  Study.  A  Handsome  Octavo  volume.  Bound  in 
Beveled  Cloth.  Price  $1.50 

"  It  is  refreshing  to  read  the  story  of  a  life  so  fully  devoted  to  science,  and  the  reader  will  readily  appreciate 
Professor  Gross's  enthusiasm  for  his  subject,  which  led  him  to  extend  what  was  originally  intended  for  an  essay  to 
its  present  size. 

"  The  phototype  of  Sharp's  well-known  engraving  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynold's  portrait  is  an  excellent  reproduction, 
and  forms  a  fitting  and  handsome  frontispiece. 

"  The  volume  will  prove  an  ornament  to  the  study  table,  where  it  will  be  a  constant  incentive  to  whatever  ii 
best  and  noblest  in  a  noble  profession." — B^'ston  Med.  and  Surgical  yournal. 

BY  SAME   AUTHOR. 

AMERICAN  MEDICAL  MEN. 

American  Medical  Biography  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  with  portrait  of  Dr. 
Benjamin  Rush.     Large  8vo. 

GLISAN,  TEXT-BOOK  OF  MODERN  MIDWIFERY. 

A  Text-Book  of  Modern  Midwifery.  By  Rodney  Glisan,  m.d..  Emeritus 
Professor  of  Midwifery  and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children  in  the  Medical 
Department  of  Willamette  University,  Portland,  Oregon,  and  Late  President 
of  the  Oregon  State  Medical  Society.  With  129  Illustrations.  One  Volume, 
octavo,  624  pp.  Price,  in  Cloth  $4.00 ;  in  Leather  $5.00 

GILL,  ON  INDIGESTION.     Third  Edition. 

Indigestion  ;  What  It  Is  ;  What  It  Leads  To  ;  and  a  New  Method  of  Treating 
It.     By  John  Beadnell  Gill,  m.d.      Third   Edition.     i2mo.  $1-25 

GANT,  ON  THE  BLADDER  AND  PROSTATE. 

Diseases  of  the  Bladder  and  Prostate  Gland  and  Urethra,  including  a  Practical 
View  of  Urinary  Diseases,  Deposits  and  Calculi.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and 
Enlarged,  with  New  Illustrations.     i2mo.  Price  $3.00 

GIBBES,  STUDENT'S  PATHOLOGY. 

Practical  Histology  and  Pathology.  By  Heneage  Gibbes,  m.b.  i2mo. 
Cloth.  Price  $1.00 

Chap.  i.  Introduction.  2.  On  Preparing  Tissues  for  Examination.  3.  On  Cutting  Sections.  4.  On  Staining. 
5.  On  Double  Staining.  6.  On  Mounting.  7.  Method  of  Obtaining  Animal  Tissues,  etc.  Practical  Histology-, 
PathoSogy,  Memoranda  and  Formula;. 

"  This  excellent  little  work  is  admirably  adapted  to  fulfill  the  purpose  for  which  it  has  been  written.  It  is 
short,  clear,  and  eminently  practical.  The  author  is  evidently  an  accomplished  histologist,  and  his  book  <:onyeys 
the  impression  that  it  is  based  upon  his  own  personal  experience." — Tlic  London  Medical  Record. 


i8  P.  nr.Ak'/sTON,  SON  6-  co:s 


GODLEE'S  ATLAS  OF  HUMAN  ANATOMY. 

Illustrating;  most  of  the  Ordinary  Dissections  and  many  not  usually  practiced 
by  the  Student.  Accompanied  by  References  and  an  Explanatory  Text.  Com- 
plete. Folio  Size.  48  Colored  Plates.  By  Rickma.n  John  Godlee,  m.d., 
F.R.C.S.  Forming  a  large  Folio  Volume,  with  References,  and  an  Octavo 
Volume  of  Letter-press. 

Price  of  the  two  Volumes,  Atlas  and  Letter-press,  Cloth,  $20.00 

"  It  is  likely  to  prove  as  useful  to  the  physician  and  1  "  The  explanatory  text  is  concise,  well  written,  and 
surgeon  as  to  the  anatomist." — Medkal  Times  and  contains  many  valuable  suggestions  for  the  surgeon." 
Cazttte.  I    — Loudon  Lancet. 

COWERS,   SPINAL   CORD. 

Diagnosis  of  Diseases  of  the  Spinal  Cord.  With  Colored  Plates  and  Engrav- 
ings. A  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  By  William  R.  Cowers, 
M.D.,  Assistant  Professor  Clinical  Medicine,  University  College,  London.  8vo. 
Second  Edition.  Price  $1.50 

BY   SAME  AUTHOR. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPY. 

A  Manual  and  Atlas  of  Medical  Ophthalmoscopy.  With  16  Colored  Auto" 
type  and  Lithographic  Plates  and  26  Wood  Cuts,  comprising  112  Original  Illus- 
trations of  the  Changes  in  the  Eye  in  Diseases  of  the  Brain,  Kidneys,  etc.    Svo. 

Price  J6.00 
EPILEPSY  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 

Epilepsy  and  other  Chronic  Convulsive  Diseases  :  Their  Causes,  Symptoms, 
and  Treatment.     Octavo.      Just  Ready.  Price,  Cloth,  J4.00 

NERVOUS  DISEASES. 

A  Manual  of  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System,  for  Practitioners  and  Students. 

In  Press. 

"  Dr.  Gowers,  while  profoundly  conversant  with  the  literature  of  his  subject,  has  not  allowed  himself  to  be 
influenced  to  an  undue  extent  by  the  writings  of  others,  but  while  fairly  stating  their  views,  where  this  is  neces- 
sary, he  at  the  same  time  brings  to  bear  upon  them  the  experience  derived  from  his  own  extensive  observations, 
and  when,  consequently,  they  receive  confirm-^tion  or  not  at  his  hands,  thoy  are  all  the  more  valuable  as  being  the 
outcome  of  the  most  searching  and  unbiased  criticism.  It  would  be  impossible,  within  :he  limits  of  a  short  re- 
view, to  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the  extent  of  Dr.  Gowers'  work." — lidinbur^h  Medical  youmaL 

GREENHOW,  BRONCHITIS. 

On  Chronic  Bronchitis,  especially  as  connected  with  Gout,  Emphysema,  and 
Diseases  of  the  Heart.     By  E.  Headlam  Greenhow,  m.d.   i2mo.      Price  $1.50 

BY    same   author. 

ADDISON'S  DISEASE. 

Being  the  Croonian  Lectures,  delivered  before  the  Royal  College  of  Physi- 
cians, London.     Revised  and  Illustrated  by  Plates  and  Reports  of  Cases.     Svo. 

Price  $3.00 

"The  book  forms  a  most  interesting  and  valuable  monograph,  comprehensive  and  exhaustive." — Britith 
Medical  yournal. 

HUGHES,  COMPEND  OF  THE  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE. 

A  Compend  of  Practice.  By  Daniel  E.  Hughes,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of 
Clinical  Medicine  at  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.     In  two  parts — 

Part  I. — Continued,  Eruptive,  and  Periodical  Fevers,  Diseases  of  the  Stom- 
ach Intestines,  Peritoneum,  Biliary  Passages,  Liver,  Kidneys,  etc.,  and  General 
Diseases,  etc. 

Part    II. — Diseases   of  the   Respiratory    System,    Circulatory    System,    and 
Nervous  System  ;  Diseases  of  the  Blood,  etc. 
Price  of  each  Part,  in  Cloth,  $1.00;  interleaved  for  the  addition  of  Notes,  f  1.25 

■'^;.*  These  little  books  can  be  regarded  as  a  full  set  of  notes  upon  the  Practice 
of  Medicine,  containing  the  Synonyms,  Definitions,  Causes,  Symptoms,  Prog- 
nosis, Diagnosis,  Treatment,  etc.,  of  each  disease,  and  including  a  number  of 
new  prescriptions.  They  have  been  compiled  from  the  lectures  of  prominent 
Professors,  and  reference  has  been  made  to  the  latest  writings  of  Professors 


PUB  Lie  A  TIONS. 


»9 


HABERSHON,  ON  THE  STOMACH. 

On  Diseases  of  the  Stomach — The  Varieties  of  Dyspepsia — Their  Diagnosis 
and  Treatment.  By  S.  O.  HAiiERSHON,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  Senior  Physician  to,  and 
Late  Lecturer  on,  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine  at  Guy's  Hospital. 
Third  Edition,  Revised.     Crown  8vo.  Price  $1.25 

"  As  .in  exprcs'iion  of  the  results  of  long  personal  experience  in  both  hospital  and  private  practice,  conveyed 
in  .-igrecable  though  not  always  perspicuous  diction,  this  contribution  of  Dr.  Habershon's  has  special  value  of  its 
own,  and  is  so  far  entitled  to  the  favorable  consideration  of  the  practitioner,  as  is  already  testified  by  a  demand 
for  a  third  edition." — American  yournal  of  Medical  Sciences. 

HALE,   ON  CHILDREN. 

The  Manajjemcnt  of  Children  in  Mcalth  and  Disease.  A  Book  for  Mothers, 
By  Mrs.  Amie  I\L  Hale,  m.d.  Abounding  in  valuable  information  and  com- 
mon sense  advice.     New  Enlarged  Edition.     i2mo.  Price  .75 

"  \Vc  shall  use  our  influence  in  the  introduction  of  this  work  to  families  under  our  care,  and  we  urge  the  pro- 
fession generally  to  follow  our  ^■x.-s.m-^Xe.."— Buffalo  Medical  and  Surgical  yournal. 

HOR^A^ITZ,  COMPEND  OF  SURGERY. 

A  Compend  of  Surgery,  including  Minor  Surgery,  Amputations,  Fractures, 
Ligatures,  Dislocations,  Surgical  Diseases,  etc.,  with  Differential  Diagnosis  and 
Treatment.     By  Orville  Horwitz,  b.s.,  m.d.,  with  Illustrations.  i2mo. 

Cloth,  ;>I.OO 

HARDWICKE,  MEDICAL  EDUCATION. 

Medical  Education  and  Practice  in  All  Parts  of  the  World.  Containing 
Regulations  for  Graduation  at  the  Various  Universities  throughout  the  World. 
By  Herbert  Junius  Hardwicke,  m.d.,  m.r.c.p.     8vo.  ,  Price  $3.00 

"  Dr.  Hardwicke's  book  will  prove  a  valuable  source  of  information  to  those  who  may  desire  to  know  the 
conditions  upon  which  medical  practice  is  or  may  be  pursued  in  any  or  every  country  of  the  world,  even  to  the 
lemotest  corners  of  the  earth.  The  work  has  been  compiled  with  great  care,  and  must  have  required  a  vast 
amount  of  labor  and  perseverance  on  the  part  of  its  author." — Dublin  Medical  yournal, 

HARLEY,  ON  THE  LIVER.     Illustrated. 

On  Diseases  of  the  Liver,  with  or  without  Jaundice.     Diagnosis  and  Treat- 
•         ment.     By  George  Harley,  m.d.     Author  of  the  Urine  and  Its  Derangements. 
With  Colored  Plates  and  Numerous  Illustrations.     Royal  Octavo. 

Price,  Cloth,  $5.00;  Leather,  $6.00. 


"  It  is  one  o{\.\\s  /reshesi,  most  readable,  and  irtost 
instructive  medical  books  that  have  been  laid  upon  our 
table  during  the  present  decade.  .  .  In  conclusion, 
we  commend  again  most  heartily  Dr.  Harley's 
extremely  valuable  book." — Philadelphia  Medical 
Times. 

"  The  work  is  far  in  advance,  in  original  and  prac- 
tical information,  of  any  treatise  on  the  subject  with 
A'hich  we  are  acquainted,  and  is  worth  many  times  its 
cost  to  any  physician  treating  hepatic  troubles." — 
Chicago  Medical  Times. 


"  The  whole  subject-matter  is  treated  in  a  masterly 
manner,  and  the  work  is  destined  to  find  a  place 
among  the  classics." — Medical  Herald,  Louisville, 
Ky. 

"  It  is  the  outcome  of  a  mind  that  went  to  its  task 
amply  equipped  therefor.  It  is  the  product  of  long 
thinking  and  ripe  judgment.  .  .  .  We  must  con- 
tent ourselves  with  this  bare  statement,  hoping  that 
those  who  read  the  b^ok  will  derive  as  much  benefit  as 
ourselves." — JVezu  Orleans  Medical  and  Surgical 
yournal. 


HOLDEN,  HUMAN  OSTEOLOGY.     Sixth  Edition. 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Bones,  with  Colored  Delineations  of  the  At- 
tachments of  the  Muscles.  The  General  and  Microscopical  Structure  of  Bone 
and  its  Development.  By  the  Author  and  A.  Doran,  f.r.c.s.,  with  Lithographic 
Plates,  etc.  By  Luther  Holden,  f.r.c.s.  Numerous  Illustrations.  Sixth 
Edition,  carefully  Revised.  Price  $6. 00 

BY   same    author. 

ANATOMY. 

Manual  of  Dissections  of  the  Human  Body. 
170  Illustrations. 

LANDMARKS. 

Landmarks,  Medical  and  Surgical. 
Enlarged. 


Fourth  London  Edition.    With 
Price  $5.50 


Third  London  Edition. 


Revised  and 
Price  ii.oo 

"Mr.  Holden  is  the  happy  possessor  of  the  foculty  of  writing  interesting  works  on  Anatomy.  A  part  of  the 
charm  consists  in  the  frequent  references  to  practical  points,  and  in  the  explanation  of  the  advantages  aii"  objects 
of  details  of  structures." — Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  yournal. 


ao  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  6-  CO.'S 


HEATH'S  OPERATIVE  SURGERY. 

A  Course  of  Operative  Surgery,  consisting  of  a  Scries  of  Plates,  each  plate 
containing  Numerous  Figures,  Drawn  from  Nature  by  the  Celebrated  Anatomi- 
cal Artist,  M.  Lcveillc,  of  Paris,  Engraved  on  Steel  and  Colored  by  Hand, 
under  his  immediate  superintendence,  with  Descriptive  Text  of  Each  Operation'. 
By  Christopuek  Heath,  f.k.c.s..  Surgeon  to  University  College  Hospital,  and 
Holme  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  in  University  College,  London.  One  Large 
Quarto  Volume.  Price  $14.00 

The  author  has  embodied  in  this  work  the  experience  gained  by  him  during 
twenty  years  of  surgical  teaching.  It  comprises  all  the  operations  that  are  required 
in  ordinary  surgical  practice.  He  has  selected  for  illustration  and  description  those 
methods  which  appear  to  give  the  best  results  in  practice,  referring  to  the  errors 
likely  to  occur  and  the  best  methods  of  avoiding  them. 

RY    SAME   AUTHOR. 

THE   STUDENT'S  GUIDE  TO  SURGICAL    DIAGNOSIS. 

i3mo.  Price  ;f  1. 25 

"  Mr.  Heath  is  so  well  known,  both  as  a  practical  surgeon,  teacher  and  writer,  that  anything  from  his  pen  re- 
quires no  introduction  from  the  hands  of  reviewers,  and  scarcely  any  notice  but  the  announcement  of  the  fact  that 
he  has  written  a  book." — Medical  Record. 

A  MANUAL  OF    MINOR    SURGERY   AND   BANDAGING. 

Sixth    Edition,    Revised    and    Enlarged.      With     115    Illustrations.       i2mo. 

Price  $2.00 

"This  excellent  work  should  not  be  termed  a  '  Minor '  Surgery,  but  it  really  consists  oi  the  sum  and  substance 
of  Practical  surgerj-.     We  would  not  exchange  it  for  any  book  in  our  possession." — Southern  Clinic. 

HEATH'S  PRACTICAL  ANATOMY.     Fifth  London  Edition. 

Practical  Anatomy.  A  Manual  of  Dissections.  Fifth  London  Edition.  24 
Colored  Plates,  and  nearly  300  other  Illustrations.     Just  Ready.  Price  $5.00 

INJURIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  JAWS. 

The  Jacksonian  Prize  Essay  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England,  ^ 
1867.     Second  Edition,  Revised,  with   over   150  Illustrations.     Octavo. 

Price  $4.25 
HOOD,  ON  GOUT  AND  RHEUMATISM. 

A  Treatise  on  Gout,  Rheumatism,  and  the  Allied  Affections.  Their  Treat- 
ment, Complications,  and  Prevention.  By  Peter  Hood,  m.d.  Second  Edi- 
tion, Revised  and  Enlarged.     With  some  Considerations  on  Longevity.  Octavo. 

Price  $3.50 

"  The  Observations  on  Treatment  are  specially  to  be  commended." — London  Lancet. 

HOLDEN,  THE  SPHYGMOGRAPH. 

The  Sphygmograph.  Its  Physiological  and  Pathological  Indications.  By 
Edgar  Holden,  m.d.  Illustrated  by  Three  Hundred  Engravings  on  Wood. 
8vo.  Price  S2.00 

HOLMES,  THE  LARYNGOSCOPE. 

A  Guide  to  the  Use  of  the  Laryngoscope  in  General  Practice.  By  GORDON 
Holmes,  M.D.,  Physician  to  the  Throat  and  Ear  Infirmary.     i3mo.     Price  $1.00 

BY   same   author. 

VOCAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Vocal  Physiology  and  Hygiene.  With  reference  to  the  Cultivation  and 
Preservation  of  the  Voice.     Illustrated.     i2mo.  Price  $2.00 

HOFF,  ON  H^EMATURIA. 

Haematuria  as  a  Symptom  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Genito-Unnary  Organs.  By 
O.  HoFF,  M.D.     Illustrated.     i2mo.  P"ce  .75 


PUBLICA  TIONS.  21 

HUNTER,  MECHANICAL  DENTISTRY. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  the  Various  kinds  of  Artificial 
Dentures,  with  Formulae,  Receipts,  etc.  By  Charles  Hunter,  d.d.s.  igo 
Illustrations.     i2mo.  Price  $1.50 

"It  is  the  outcome  of  his  own  experience  of  some  twenty  years  as  a  Mechanical  Dentist,  and  contains,  moreover, 
much  derived  from  practical  knowledge  of  other  dentists.  The  value  of  the  book  is  also  much  added  to  by  illus- 
trations. It  will  be  very  useful  to  the  Dental  Student,  and  to  all  Mechanical  Dentists." — London  Medical  Times 
•ind  Gazette. 

HUTCHINSON'S    ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    CLINICAL    SUR- 
GERY.    First  Volume  Complete. 

Consisting  of  Plates,  Photographs,  Woodcuts,  Diagrams,  etc.  Illustrating 
Surgical  Diseases,  Symptoms,  and  Accidents;  also  Operations  and  other 
Methods  of  Treatment.  With  Descriptive  Letter-press.  I5y  Jonathan  Hutch- 
inson, F.R.C.S.,  Senior  Surgeon  to  the  London  Hospital,  Surgeon  to  the  Moor- 
fields  Ophthalmic  Hospital,  and  to  the  Hospital  for  Diseases  of  the  Skin,  Black- 
friars.  In  Quarterly  Fasciculi.  Imperial  4to.  Volume  i.  (Ten  Fasciculi)  bound 
complete  in  itself.  Price  $25.00.  Parts  Eleven  to  Fifteen  of  Volume  2,  Now 
Ready.  Each,  $2.50 

HEWITT,  DISEASES  OF  WOMEN.     Fourth  Edition. 

The  Diagnosis,  Pathology,  and  Treatment  of  Diseases  of  Women,  Including 
the  Diagnosis  of  Pregnancy.  Founded  on  a  Course  of  Lectures  Delivered  at  St. 
Mary's  Hospital  Medical  School.  By  Graily  Hewitt,  m.d.,  Lond.,  m.r.c.p., 
Physician  to  the  British  Lying-in  Hospital ;  Lecturer  on  Midwifery  and  Diseases 
of  Women  and  Children  at  St.  Mary's  Hospital  Medical  School;  Honorary 
Secretary  to  the  Obstetrical  Society  of  London,  etc.  The  Fourth  American 
Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged,  with  New  Illustrations.     Octavo. 

Price,  Paper,  $1.50;  Cloth,  $2.50 


"  Readers  of  the  former  editions  will  not  require  to 
be  told  that  the  additions  now  made  are  of  the  highest 
possible  excellence." — Times  and  Gazette. 

"  It  is  one  of  the  most  useful,  practical,  and  compre- 
hensive works  upon  the  subject  in  the  English  language, 
a  true  guide  to  the  student,  and  an  invaluable  means  of 
reference  for  the  teacher." — iV.  Y.  Medical  Record. 


"  The  excellent  work  of  Dr.  Hewitt  presents — in  a 
form  well  adapted  to  conduct  the  student  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  Diseases  of  Women,  and  to  assist  the  young 
practitioner  in  his  study  of  these  diseases  at  the  bedside 
of  the  patient — a  very  full  and  clear  exposition  of  the 
views  entertained  by  the  most  authoritative  teachers  as 
to  their  pathological  treatment  and  their  correct  Diag- 
nosis."—y^w^'r.  Med.  yournal. 

HAY,  SARCOMATOUS  TUMOR. 

History  of  a  Case  of  Recurring  Sarcomatous  Tumor  of  the  Orbit  in  a  Child. 
By  Thomas  Hay,  m.d.     Illustrated.     Paper.  Price  .50 

HEWSON,  EARTH  IN  SURGERY. 

Earth  as  a  Topical  Application  in  Surgery,  Being  a  Full  Exposition  of  its  Use 
in  Cases  Requiring  Topical  Applications.  By  Addinell  Hewson,  m.d.  Illus- 
trated.   8vo.  Price  $2.56 

HODGE,  ON  ABORTION. 

On  Foeticide  or  Criminal  Abortion.     By  Hugh  L.  Hodge,  m.d. 

Price,  Paper,  .30;  Cloth,  .50 
HODGE,  CASE-BOOK. 

Note-Book  for  Cases  of  Ovarian  Tumors.  By  H.  Lennox  Hodge,  m.d.  With 
Diagrams.  Price,  Paper,  .50 

HIGGINS,  DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE.     Now  Ready. 

A  Hand-Book  of  Ophthalmic  Practice.  By  Charles  Higgins,  f.r.c.s. 
Ophthalmic  Assistant  Surgeon    at  Guy's  Hospital.      Second  Edition.      i6mo. 

Price  .50 

Contents. — Section:.  Discharge  from  the  Eyes.  ii.  Intolerance  of  Light,  iii.  Iritis  and  Glaucoma,  iv. 
Diseases  of  the  Eyelids,  v.  Watering  of  the  Eye.  vi.  Acuteness  of  Vision,  Field  of  Visiwi,  Anomalies  of  Re. 
fraction,  Astigmatism,  Accommodation,  Presbyopia,  vii.  Disturbance  of  Vision,  Use  of  the  Ophthalmoscope; 
Normal  and  Morbid  Appearances,     vill.  Injuries. 

"We  have  rarely  seen  so  much  important  information  condensed  in  so  .'.hort  a  space." — American  Medical 
%furnal. 


22  •  P,  BLAKISTON,  SON  &-  CO.'S 


HARRIS,  THE  PRACTICE  OF  DENTISTRY.     Tenth  Edition. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Dentistry.  Tenth  Revised  Edition.  In  great 
part  Rewritten,  Rearranged,  and  with  many  new  and  important  Illustrations. 
By  Chapin  a.  Hakkis,  m.d.,  d.d.s.  Edited  by  P.  H.  Alsten,  m.d.,  Professor 
of  Dental  Science  and  Mechanism  in  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery. 
With  nearly  400  Illustrations.     Royal  Octavo.    Price,  Cloth,  $6.50;  Leather,  §7. 50 

This  new  edition  of  Dr.  Harris'  work  has  been  thoroughly  revised  in  all  its  parts, 
more  so  than  any  previous  edition.  So  great  have  been  the  advances  in  many 
branches  of  dentistry  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  rewrite  the  articles  or  subjects, 
and  this  has  been  done  in  the  most  efficient  manner  by  Professor  Austen,  for  many 
years  an  associate  and  friend  of  Dr.  Harris,  assisted  by  Professor  Gorgas  and  Thomas 
S.  Latimer,  m.d.  The  publishers  feel  assured  that  it  will  now  be  found  the  most 
complete  text-book  for  the  student,  and  guide  for  the  practitioner  in  the  English 
language. 

BY    S,\ME   AUTHOR. 

MEDICAL  AND  DENTAL  DICTIONARY.     Fourth  Edition. 

A  Dictionary  of  Medical  Terminology,  Dental  Surgery,  and  the  Collateral 
Sciences.  Fourth  Edition,  Carefully  Revised  and  Enlarged.  By  Ferdinand 
J.  S.  Gorgas,  m.d.,  d.d.s..  Professor  of  Dental  Surgery  in  the  Baltimore  College, 
etc.     Royal  Octavo.  Price,  Cloth,  ;g6.5o;  Leather,  $7.50 

This  Dictionary,  having  passed  through  fAn'e  editions,  and  been  for  some  time 
out  of  print,  has  been  again  carefully  revised  by  F.  J.  S.  Gorgas,  M.D.,  Dr.  Harris' 
successor  as  Professor  of  Dental  Surgery  in  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery. 
In  his  preface  to  this  new  edition,  the  editor  says  : — 

"  The  object  of  the  reviser  has  been  to  bring  the  book  thoroughly  up  to  the  pres- 
ent requirements  of  the  profession,  the  Medica/  portion  having  been  as  carefully  re- 
vised and  added  to  as  that  devoted  more  especially  to  Dental  Science,  while  a 
number  of  obsolete  terms  and  methods  have  been  omitted.  In  nearly  ever>'  one  of 
the  seven  hundred  and  forty-three  pages  of  the  former  edition  corrections  and  addi- 
tions have  been  made,  and  many  new  processes,  terms  and  appliances  described, 
some  of  which  are  not  found  in  any  other  work  published." 

HANDY,  ANATOMY. 

Text-Book  of  Anatomy  and  Guide  to  Dissections.  For  the  Use  of  Students. 
By  W.  R.  Handy,  m.d.     312  Illustrations.  Price  S3.00 

HILLIER,  DISEASES  OF  CHILDREN. 

A  Clinical  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  Children.  By  Thomas  Hillier,  .m.d. 
8vo.  Price  $2.00 

HUFELAND,  LONG  LIFE. 

The  Art  of  Prolonging  Life.  By  C.  W.  Hufeland.  Edited  by  ERASMUS 
Wilson,  m.d.     i2mo.  Price  Ji.oq 

"  Wc  wish  all  doctors  and  all  their  intelligent  clients  would  read  it,  for  surely  its  perusal  would  be  attended 
•A'ith  pleasure  and  benefit." — American  Practitioner. 

"  It  certainly  should  be  in  the  library  of  every  physician." — Medical  Brief. 

HUNTER,  PORTRAIT  OF. 

Portrait  of  John  Hunter.  From  Sharp's  well-known  Engraving;  a  copy  of 
Sir  Joshua  Reynold's  Portrait.  For  Framing.  Large  size,  9  x  1 1  ;  sheet  16  x  20. 
Price,  in  the  Sheet,    sent  free  by  mail,   50   cents  ;    or,   Handsomely    Framed 

Price  $2.0Q 


PURLICA  TIONS.  23 


HEADLAND,  THE  ACTION  OF  MEDICINES.       Ninth  Edition. 

On  the  Action  of  Medicines  in  the  System.  ]5y  F.  W.  Headland,  m.d. 
Ninth   American  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.    8vo.  Price  J53.OC 

"  It  displays  in  every  page  the  evidence  of  extensive  knowledge  and  of  sound  reasoning;  it  will  be  useful  alike 
to  those  who  arc  just  commencing  their  studies,  and  to  those  who  arc  engaged  in  the  active  pursuits  of  pro- 
fessional \\ic."— Medical  Tiiin-s. 

"  The  very  favorable  opinion  which  we  were  amongst  the  first  to  pronounce  upon  this  essay  has  been  fully 
confirmed  by  the  general  voice  of  the  profession,  and  Dr.  Headland  may  now  be  congralulatecl  on  having  pro- 
duced a  treatise  which  has  been  weighed  in  the  balance,  and  found  worthy  of  being  ranked  with  our  standard 
medical  works." — London  Lancet. 

JAMES,  SORE  THROAT. 

On  Sore  Throat,  Its  Nature,  Varieties  and  Treatment,  Including  its  Con- 
nection with  other  Diseases.  By  Prossrr  James,  m.r.c.p.  Fourth  Edition, 
Revised  and  Enlarged.     With  Colored  Plates  and  Numerous  Wood-cuts.     i2mo. 

Price  $1.25 

♦' We  can  confidently  recommend  his  therapeutic  teachings  as  well  worthy  of  the  careful  consideration  of  the 
Profession,  for  they  set  forth  the  pr.ictice  of  an  enthusiastic  worker,  whose  special  experience  has  been  large  and 
lengthened." — British  Medical  yoicmal. 

"  The  practitioner  who  buys  Dr.  James'  unpretending  little  book  will  provide  himself  with  a  wise  and  practical 
clinical  commentary,  and  with  a  well  arranged  digest  of  long  and  varied  experience." — Westminster  Revieu). 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

LARYNGOSCOPY  AND  RHINOSCOPY. 

Including  the  Diagnosis  of  Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Nose.  Third  Edition. 
With  Colored  Plates.     i8mo.  Price  j52.oo. 

"  It  gives  in  a  succinct  form  the  approved  methods  of  examination  and  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  nose,  throat, 
and  larynx.  The  plan  pursued  is  one  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  general  practitioner." — American  Medical 
yournal. 

JONES,  AURAL  ATLAS. 

An  Atlas  of  Diseases  of  the  Membrana  Tympani,  Being  a  Series  of  Colored 
Plates,  containing  62  Figures.  With  appropriate  Letter-press  and  Explanatory 
Text.  By  H.  Macnaughton  Jones,  m.d.,  Surgeon  to  the  Cork  Ophthalmic  and 
Aural  Hospital.     4to.  Price  $4.00. 

"  The  cases  are  well  selected,  the  drawings  executed  from  life,  highly  artistic  and  very  conscientious,  and  the 
commentaries  indicate  familiarity  with  the  subject  and  good  judgment  in  dealing  with  it." — British  Medical 
yournal. 

BY   SAME    AUTHOR. 

AURAL  SURGERY. 

A  Practical  Hand-book  on  Aural  Surgery.  Illustrated.  Second  Edition,  Re- 
vised and  Enlarged,  with  new  Wood  Engravings.     i2mo.     Cloth.       Price  $2.75 

JONES,  SIEVEKING   AND  PAYNE,  PATHOLOGICAL  AN- 
ATOMY. 

A  Manual  of  Pathological  Anatomy.  By  C.  Handfield  Jones,  m.d.,  and 
Edward  H.  Sieveking,  m.d..  Physician  to  St.  Mary's  Hospital.  A  New  En- 
larged Edition.  Edited  by  J.  F.  Payne,  m.d..  Lecturer  on  Morbid  Anatomy  at 
St.  Thomas'  Hospital.     With  Numerous  Illustrations.     Demi  8vo.     Price  $5.50. 

JONES,  ON  SIGHT  AND  HEARING. 

The  Defects  of  Sight  and  Hearing,  their  Nature,  Causes,  and  Prevention.  By 
T.  Wharton  Jones,  m.d.     Second  Edition.     i6mo.  Price  .50. 

KIRBY,  ON   PHOSPHORUS.     Fifth  Edition. 

Phosphorus  as  a  Remedy  for  Functional  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System. 
By  E.  A.  KiRBY,  M.D.     Fifth  Edition.     8vo.  Price  $1.00 

KOLLMEYER,  KEY  TO  CHEMISTRY. 

Chemia  Coartata,  or  Key  to  Modern  Chemistry.  By  A.  H.  Kollmeyer,  m.d. 
With  Numerous  Tables,  Tests,  etc.  Price  ,?2.35 

KIRKE,  PHYSIOLOGY.     Revised  and  Enlarged. 

A  Hand-book  of  Physiology.  By  Kirke.  Tenth  London  Edition.  By  W, 
Morrant  Baker,  m.d.     420  Illustrations.     Ntnu  Ready.  Price  gS-oc 

"  This  is  undoubtedly  the  best  work  for  students  on  Physiology  extant." — Cincinnati  Med.  News. 


24  p.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &'   CO.'S 


KANE,  THE  OPIUM,  MORPHINE  AND  SIMILAR  HABITS. 

Drugs  that  Enslave.  The  Opium,  Morphine,  Chloral,  Hashisch  and  Similar 
Habits.     Hy  H.  H.  Kane,  m.d.,  of  New  York.     With  Illustrations.     Price  51.25. 

"  It  contains  a  large  amount  of  information  collected  with  much  labor  and  prcRcnted  In  a  systematic  manner. 
The  subject  of  the  chloral  habit  has  not  been  investigated  by  any  one,  wc  believe,  so  thoroughly  as  Dy  I>r.  Kane." 
— Midical  Rfcord. 

"  It  deserves  to  be  read  by  those  who  feel  an  interest  in  discouraging  ihe  use  of  these  dangerous  drugs.  The 
book  is  embellished  by  an  excellent  phototype  frontispiece  of  Laocoon." — American  Journal  of  Pkarmtuy. 

"  A  work  of  more  tlian  ordinary  ability  and  careful  research.  .  .  .  For  the  first  time,  reliable  statistics  on 
the  use  of  chloral  arc  clxssificd  and  published,  .  .  .  and  it  is  shown  that  the  use  of  cMor:i\  causes  a  more 
complete  and  rapid  ruin  of  mind  and  body  than  either  opium  or  morphine." — Drus^ists'  Circular  and  Cacette. 

KIDD,  THERAPEUTICS. 

The  Laws  of  Therapeutics ;  or,  the  Science  and  Art  of  Medicine.  By  Joseph 
KiDD.  M.D.     i2mo.     Cloth.  Price  ;fi. 25. 

"  Dr.  Kidd  acknowledges  two  laws — that  oi contraria  contrariis  timA  simitia  similibus  :  but  the  cases  he  gires 
m  his  chapter  on  ars  medica  show  that,  like  a  sensible  practitioner,  he  does  not  allow  himself  blindly  to  follow 
either  the  one  or  the  other,  but  seeks  out  the  cause  of  disease,  and  tries  by  rational  measures  to  remove  it.  The 
cases  are  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  book." — London  Practitioner. 

LANDIS,  A  COMPEND  OF  OBSTETRICS.     Illustrated. 

A  Compend  of  Obstetrics ;  especially  adapted  to  the  Use  of  Students  and 
Physicians.  By  Henry  G.  Landis,  m.d..  Professor  of  Obstetrics  and  Diseases 
of  Women  in  Starling  Medical  College,  Columbus,  Ohio.  Illustrated.  i2mo. 
Cloth.  Price  ;fi.oo:  interleaved  for  the  addition  of  Notes,  ;Jii.25 


"  It  is  complete,  accurate  and  scientific  ;  the  very 
best  book  of  ils  kind." — Fro/,  y.  S.  Knox,  Rusk 
Medical  College,  Chicago. 

"  I  have  been  teaching  in  this  department  for  many 
years,  and  am  free  to  say  that  this  will  be  the  best 
assistant  I  ever  had.  It  is  accurate  and  comprehen- 
sive, but  brief  and  pointed." — Pro/.  P.  D.  Yost,  St. 
Louis. 


"  The  questions  are  well  chosen,  the  answers  clear, 
concise,  and  well  up  to  the  present  state  of  obstetrical 
science.  It  will  be  a  handy  book  for  reference  for 
practitioner  as  well  as  student." — Prof.  £.  O.  F. 
Roler,  Chica!;o  Medical  College. 

"  I  have  ODserved  no  statement  to  the  correctness 
of  which  I  could  take  exception.     There  are  very  few 
practitioners  who  cannot  be  instructed  by  its  perusal." 
— David  Wark,  M.D.,   U.  S.  Medical  College,  New    j 
York.  I 

LEGG,  ON  THE  URINE. 

Practical  Guide  to  the  Examination  of  the  Urine,  for  Practitioner  and  Student. 
By  J.  WiCKHAM  Legg,  M.D.     Fifth  Edition,  Enlarged.     Illustrated.     i2mo. 

Price  .75 

This  little  work  is  intended  to  supply  the  Physician  or  Student  with  a  concise  guide 

to  the  recognition  of  the  different  characteristics  of  the  urine,  and  though  small  and 

well  adapted  to  the  pocket,  contains,  probably,  everything  that  could  be  gleaned 

from  a  larger  work. 

LEARED,  IMPERFECT  DIGESTION. 

The  Causes  and  Treatment  of  Imperfect  Digestion.  By  Arthur  Leared,  m.d. 
The    7th    Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged.     i2mo.  Price  ?2.oo 

LIEBREICH,  ATLAS  OF  OPHTHALMOSCOPY. 

An  Atlas  of^  Ophthalmoscopy,  containing  12  Full-page  Chromo-Lithographic 
Plates,  with  59  Figures.  By  R.  Liebreich,  m.d.  Second  Edition,  Enlarged. 
Large  Quarto.  Vx'\zg  ;?  12.00 

LIVEING,  ON  SICK  HEADACHE. 

Megrim,  or  Sick  Headache  and  Some  Allied  Disorders.  By  Edward  Live- 
ING,  M.D.     With  Plates.  Tables,  etc.     8vo.  Price  $5.50 

LEBER  AND  ROTTENSTEIN,  DENTAL  CARIES. 

Dental  Caries  and  Its  Causes.  An  Investigation  into  the  Influence  of  Fungi 
in  the  Destruction  of  the  Teeth.  By  Drs.  Leber  and  Rottenstein.  Illustrated. 
8vo.  Paper  Cover  75  cents  ;    Cloth,  51.25 

"  The  work  gives  the  result  of  patient  observation,  presents  the  deductions  of  its  authors  with  a  perspicuity  and 
modesty  calculated  to  secure  for  its  positions  a  thoughtful  consideration.  Wc  heartily  commend  it  ai  an  cdu«_a 
tional  work." — Dental  Cosmos. 


PUBLICA  TIONS. 


«5 


I.E^A^IN,  ON   SYPHILIS. 

The  Treatment  of  Syphilis.  By  Dr.  George  Lewin,  of  Berlin.  Translated 
by  Carl  Proegler,  m.d.,  and  E.  H.  Gale,  m.d.,  Surgeons  U.  S.  Army.  Illus- 
trated.    i2mo.  Price  $1.25 

"  When  such  authorities  as  Dr.  Drj'sdale  (as  we  quoted  a  few  weeks  ago)  condemn  theuseof  mercury  in  syphilLs 
as  "  too  dangerous,"  while,  on  the  other  hand,  eminent  surgeons,  such  as  Professor  Gross,  will  not  treat  a  case 
without  that  drug,  general  practitioners  will  gladly  welcome  any  media  via  which  gives  us  all  the  good  effects  of 

mercurials  without  any  danger  of  their   ill  results  appearing.     This  is  what  is  accomplished  by  Dr.  Lewin." 

Philadelphia  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter. 

LIZARS,  ON  TOBACCO. 

The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Tobacco.     By  John  Lizars,  m.d.  i2mo. 

LONGLEY,   POCKET  MEDICAL  LEXICON. 

Students'  Pocket  Medical  Dictionary,  Giving  the  Correct  Definition  and  Pro^ 
nunciation  of  all  Words  and  Terms  in  General  Use  in  Medicine  and  the  Collate- 
ral Sciences,  with  an. Appendix,  containing  Poisons  and  their  Antidotes,  Abbre- 
viations Used  in  Prescriptions,  and  a  Metric  Scale  of  Doses.  By  Elias  Longlev. 
24mo.  Price,  Cloth,  $1.00;  Tucks  and  Pocket  $1.25 

This  is  an  entirely  new  Medical  Dictionary,  containing  some  300  compactly 
printed  24mo  pages,  very  carefully  prepared  by  the  author,  who  has  had  much  ex- 
perience in  the  preparation  of  similar  works,  assisted  by  the  Professors  of  Chemistry 
and  of  Botany  in  one  of  our  leading  medical  colleges. 


"  This  little  book  will  be  welcomed  by  students  in 
medicine  and  pharmacy  as  a  convenient  pocket  com- 
panion, giving  the  pronunciation,  acceptation,  and 
definition  of  medical,  pharmaceutical,  chemical  and 
botanical  terms." — Avisrican  your  nal  of  Pharmacy. 

"  It  would  seem  to  be  just  the  book  for  dental  and 
medical  students." — Dental  Advertiser. 


"  It  is,  we  believe,  also  the  only  lexicon  in  existence 
in  which  the  pronunciation  of  words  is  fully  and  dis- 
tinctly marked." — Canada  Medical  Review. 

"  This  is  a  very  compact  and  complete  little  diction- 
arj'.  We  commend  it  as  particularly  useful  to  students." 
— J^ew  Vork  Medical  yournal. 


MAYNE,  MEDICAL  DICTIONARY.     Fifth  Edition. 

A  Medical  Vocabulary,  Being  an  Explanation  of  all  Terms  and  Phrases  used 
in  the  Various  Departments  of  Medical  Science  and  Practice,  Giving  their  Deri- 
vation, Meaning,  Application,  and  Pronunciation.  Intended  specially  as  a  Book 
of  Reference  for  the  Student.  By  Drs.  R.  G.  and  J.  Mayne.  Fifth  Edition. 
Revised  and  Enlarged.     Cloth.  Price  $4.00 

THE  POLYCLINIC. 

A  Monthly  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  conducted  by  the  Faculty  of 
the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic  and  School  for  Graduates  in  Medicine.  Sample 
copies  free.  Terms,  per  Annum,  $1.00 

An  invaluable  Monthly  Reference  List  for  Librarians,  Professors,  Specialists,  and 
all  wishing  to  keep  acquainted  with  the  Medical  Literature  of  the  day. 

MACDONALD,      MICROSCOPICAL       EXAMINATION      OF 
WATER. 

A  Guide  to  the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Drinking  Water.  By  J.  D. 
Macdonald,  m.d.  With  Twenty  Full-page  Lithographic  Plates,  Reference 
Tables,  etc.     8vo.  Price  $2.75 

"  The  volume  is  an  excellent  Aar.d-hook  and  will  greatly  facilitate  the  study  of  the  subject." — Popular  Scicnct 
Monthly. 

MAYS,  THE  THERAPEUTIC  FORCES; 

Or,  The  Action  of  Medicine  in  the  Light  of  the  Doctrine  of  Conservation  of 
Force.     By  Thomas  J.  Mays,  m.d.     i2mo.  Price  $1.25 


76  p.  lU.AKISTON,  SON  &-  CO.'S 


MACKENZIE,  ON  THE  THROAT  AND  NOSE. 

Including  the  Pharynx,  Larynx,  Trachea,  Gisophagus,  Nasal  Cavities,  and 
Neck.  By  Mokell  Macki:n/.ie,  m.d.,  London,  Senior  Physician  to  the  Hos- 
pital for  Diseases  of  the  Chest  and  Throat,  Lecturer  on  Diseases  of  the  Throat 
at  London  Hospital  Medical  College,  etc.,  etc. 

Vol.  I.     Including  the   Pharynx,   Larynx,  Trachea,  etc.     112   Illustrations. 

A\nu  Ready.  Price,  Cloth,  S4.00  ;  Leather,  S5.00 

Vol.  II.     Including  the  OEsophagus,  Nasal  Cavities,  Neck,  etc.     Illustrated. 

In  Preparation. 
Author's  Edition,  issued  under  his  supervision,  containing  all  the  original  Wood 
Engravings,  and  the  essay  on  "  Diphtheria,  Its  Causes,  Nature,  and  Treatment,"  for- 
merly published  separately.  Each  volume  sold  separately;  purchasers  of  Volume  I. 
will  receive  early  information  of  date  of  issue  and  price  of  Volume  II.,  upon  sending 
their  address  to  the  publishers. 

"We  have  long  felt  the  want  of  a  thoroughly  practical  and  systematic  treatise  on  diseases  of  the  throat 
and  nasal  pa.ssages.  Admirable  essays  have  from  time  to  time  appeared  ;  no  standard  work  has  been  written. 
Any  one  familiar  with  laryngoscopic  work  must  appreciate  the  valuable  addition  now  made  to  this  special 
department  in  the  work  before  us.  The  entire  work  will  include  the  consideration  of  affections  of  the  pharj-nx, 
larynx,  trachea,  oesophagus,  nasal  cavities,  and  neck.  The  matter  now  presented  complete  for  the  first  time  is 
the  result  of  the  author's  large  and  unrivaled  experience,  both  in  hospital  and  private  practice,  extending  over 
a  period  of  twenty  years.  There  can  be  but  one  verdict  of  the  profession  on  this  manual — it  stands  without  any 
competitor  in  medical  literature,  as  a  standard  work  on  the  organs  it  professes  to  treat  of." — Dublin  yourr.al. 

"  It  is  both  practical  and  learned  ;  abundantly  and  well  illustrated  ;  its  descriptions  of  disease  are  graphic,  and 
the  diagnoses  the  best  we  have  anywhere  seen.  To  give  examples  of  the  thoroughness  of  Dr.  Mackenzie's  book, 
we  may  cite  the  chapter  on  diphtheria,  which  embraces  47  pages.  The  chapter  on  non-malignant  tumors  of  the 
larynx  would  appear  to  be  absolutely  exhaustive.  Niiwhere  else  have  we  seen  so  elaborate  a  statement  of  the  sub- 
ject. We  can  predict  for  this  work  a  high  position,  and  congratulate  its  distinguished  author  upon  its  appear- 
ance."— Philadelphia  Medical  Times. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

THE  PHARMACOPCEIA  of  the   Hospital   for  Diseases   of  the 
Throat  and  Nose. 

The  Fourth  Edition,  much  enlarged,  containing  250  Formulae, with  Directions 
for  their  Preparation  and  Use.     i6mo.  Price  $1.25 

GROWTHS  IN  THE  LARYNX. 

Their  History,  Causes,  Symptoms,  etc.  With  Reports  and  Analysis  of  one 
Hundred  Cases.     With  Colored  and  Other  Illustrations.     8vo.  Price  $2.00 

MACNAMARA,  DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE. 

A  Manual  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Eye.  By  C.  Macnamara,  m.d.  Fourth 
Edition,. Carefully  Revised;  with  Additions  and  Numerous  Colored  Plates,  Dia- 
grams of  Eye,  Wood-cuts,  and  Test  Types.     Demi  8vo.  Price  $4.00 

"As  a  book  of  ready  reference  on  diseases  of  the  eye  it  has  no  superior,  and  we  may  safely  say,  no  equal  in  our 
language." — Cincinnati  Lancet  and  Observer. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

ON  THE  BONES  AND  JOINTS. 

Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Bones  and  Joints.     Second  Edition.      Demi  8vo. 

Price  S4.25 

MADDEN,   HEALTH    RESORTS. 

Health  Resorts  for  the  Treatment  of  Chronic  Diseases.  A  Hand-Book,  the 
result  of  the  author's  own  observations  during  several  years  of  health  travel  in 
many  lands,  containing  also  remarks  on  climatology  and  the  use  of  mineral 
waters.     By  T.  M.  Madden,  m.d.     Bvo.  Price  $2.50 

"  Rarely  have  we  encountered  a  book  containing  so  much  information  for  both  invalids  and  pleasure  seekers." 
—  The  Sanitarian. 

MEDICAL   REGISTER. 

Directory  of  Physicians  in  Philadelphia.     Octavo.  New  Edition  tn  Press. 


PUB  Lie  A  riUNS. 


MARSHALL  &  SMITH,  ON  THE  URINE. 

The  Chemical  Analysis  of  the  Urine.  By  John  Marshall,  m.d.,  and  Edgar 
F.  Smith,  m.d.,  of  the  Chemical  Laboratory,  Medical  Department,  University  of 
Pennsylvania.     Illustrated  by  Phototype  Plates.  i2mo.  Price  $i.oo 

MARSHALL,  ANATOMICAL  PLATES; 

Or  Physiological  Diagrams.     Life  Size  (7  by  4  feet)  and  Beautifully  Colored. 
By  John  Marshall,  f.r.s.     An  Entirely  New  Edition,  Revised  and  Improved, 
Illustrating  the  Whole  Human  Body. 
The  Set,  Eleven  Maps,  in  Sheets,  Price  $50.0x3 

handsomely  Mounted  on  Canvas,  with 

Rollers,  and  Varnished,  Price  $80.00 
An  E.xplanatory  Key  to  the  Diagrams,  Price  .50 

Dr.  Marshall's  Plates,  from  their  size  and  perfection  of  drawing  and  coloring,  excel 
any  diagrams  that  have  been  published.  They  have  proved  invaluable  in  Medical 
Schools  and  Lecture  Rooms.  The  low  price  at  which  they  are  offered  brings  them 
within  reach  of  all. 

No.  I.  The  Skeleton  and  Ligaments.  No.  2.  The  Muscles,  Joints,  and  Animal  Mechanics.  No.  3.  The  Vis- 
cera in  Position — The  Structure  of  the  Lungs.  No.  4.  The  Organs  of  Circulation.  No.  5.  The  Lymphatics  or 
Absorbents.  No.  6.  The  Digestive  Organs.  No.  7.  The  Brain  and  Nerves.  No.  8.  The  Organs  of  the  Senses 
and  Organs  of  the  Voice,  Plate  i.  No.  9.  The  Organs  cf  the  Senses,  Plate  2.  No.  10.  The  Microscopic 
Structure  of  the  Textures,  Plate  i.     No.  11.  The  Microscopic  Structure  of  the  Textures,  Plate  2. 

MARSDEN,  ON  CANCER. 

A  New  and  Successful  Mode  of  Treating  Certain  Forms  of  Cancer.  By  Alex- 
ander Marsden,  m.d.     Second  Edition.     Colored  Plates.     8vo.        Price  $3.00 

MARTIN,  MICROSCOPIC  MOUNTING. 

A  Manual  of  Microscopic  Mounting.  With  Notes  on  the  Collection  and  Ex- 
amination of  Objects,  and  upwards  of  150  Illustrations.  By  John  H.  Martin. 
Second  Edition,  Enlarged.     8vo.  Price  $2.75 

MORRIS,  ON  THE  JOINTS. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Joints  of  Man.     Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Liga 
ments.  Cartilages,  and  Synovial  Membranes;  of  the  Articular  Parts  of  Bones, 
etc.     By  Henry  Morris,  f.r.c.s.     Illustrated  by  44  Large  Plates  and  Numerous 
Figures,  many  of  which  are  Colored.     Svo.  Price  $5.50 

MUTER,    MEDICAL   AND    PHARMACEUTICAL   CHEMIS- 
TRY. 

An  Introduction  to  Pharmaceutical  and  Medical  Chemistry.  Part  One. — 
Theoretical  and  Descriptive.  P.\rt  Two. — Practical  and  Analytical.  Arranged 
on  the  principle  of  the  Course  of  Lectures  on  Chemistry  as  delivered  at,  and  the 
Instruction  given  in  the  Laboratories  of,  the  South  London  School  of  Pharmacy. 
By  John  Muter,  m.d..  President  of  the  Society  of  Public  Analysts.  A  Second 
Edition,  Enlarged  and  Rearranged.  The  Two  Parts  bound  in  one  large  octave 
volume.  Price  $6.00 

Part  Two. — Practical  and  Analytical.  Bound  Separately,  for  the  Special  Con- 
venience of  Students.     Large  8ro.     Cloth.  Price  $2.50 

MAC  MUNN,  THE  SPECTROSCOPE. 

The  Spectroscope  in  Medicine.  By  Chas.  A.  Mac  Munn,  m.d.  With  3 
Chromo-lithographic  Plates  of  Physiological  and  Pathological  Spectra,  and  13 
Wood  Cuts.     Svo.  Price  S3.0G 

"  This  book  is,  without  question,  the  best  that  has  yet  been  published  on  the  subject ;  to  those  not  familiar  with 
Physiological  Spectroscopy  it  will  prove  interesting,  while  to  those  who  are  working  in  this  field  it  is  a  neces' 
sity." — y'evj  York  Medical  Journal. 


28  p.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &-   CO.'S 


MANN,  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MEDICINE. 

A  Manual  of  Psychological  Medicine  and  Allied  Nervous  Diseases.  Their 
Diagnosis,  Pathology,  Prognosis  and  Treatment,  including  their  Medico-Legal 
Aspects;  with  chapter  on  Expert  Testimony,  and  an  abstract  of  the  laws  relating 
to  the  Insane  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union.  By  Euwaku  C.  Mann,  m.u.,  of 
New  York.  With  Illustrations  of  Typical  Faces  of  the  Insane,  Handwriting  of 
the  Insane,  and  Micro-Photographic  Sections  of  the  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord. 
Octavo.      To  be  Ready  October  ist,  jSSj.  Cloth.  Full  Leather, 

MAUNDER,  OPERATIVE    SURGERY. 

Operative  Surgery.  Adapted  to  the  Living  and  Dead  Subject.  By  C.  F. 
Maunder,  f.k.c.s.  Second  Edition,  with  One  Hundred  and  Sixty-four  En- 
gravings on  Wood.  Price  52.25 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

THE   ARTERIES. 

Surgery  of  the  Arteries,  including  Aneurisms,  Wounds,  Hemorrhages. 
Twenty-seven  Cases  of  Ligatures,  Antiseptic,  etc.  With  Illustrations.   Price  $1.50 

MAXON,  ON  PRACTICE. 

The  Practice  of  Medicine.     By  Edwin  R.  Maxon,  m.d.     8vo.       Price  $3.00 

MEADOWS,   OBSTETRICS,     Revised  Edition. 

A  Text-Book  of  Midwifery.  Including  the  Signs  and  Symptoms  of  Preg- 
nancy, Obstetric  Operations,  Diseases  of  the  Puerperal  State,  etc.  By  Alfred 
Meadows,  m.d.  Third  American,  from  Fourth  London  Edition.  Revised  and 
Enlarged.     With  145  Illustrations.     8vo.  Price  $2.00 

"On  all  questions  of  treatment,  whether  by  medi- 
cines, by  hygienic  regimen,  or  by  mechanical  or  oper- 
ative appliances,  this  treatise  is  as  satisfactory  as  a 
work  of  manual  size  could  be  :  students  and  practi- 
tioners can  hardly  do  better  than  adopt  it  as  their 
vade  mecum." — The  Practitioner. 

"  The  systematic  arrangement  of  subjects,  and  the 
concise,  praetical  style  in  which  it  is  written,  make 
the  work  especially  vrihmble  as  a  student's  manual." 
Chicago  Medical  Exatniner. 


"  It  is  with  great  gratification  that  we  are  enabled 
to  class  Dr.  Meadows'  Manual  as  a  rare  exception, 
and  to  pronounce  it  an  accurate,  practical,  and  cred- 
itable work,  and  to  unhesitatingly  recommend  it  to 
both  student  and  practitioner." — American  Journal 
of  Obstetrics. 

"  We  cannot  but  feel  that  every  teacher  of  Obstet- 
rics has  good  cause  to  congratulate  himself  on  being 
able  to  put  in  the  hands  of  the  student  a  book  which 
contains  so  much  valuable  and  reliable  information." 
— Philadelphia  Medical  Times. 


MEARS,  PRACTICAL  SURGERY. 

Practical  Surgery.  Including:  Part  i. — Surgical  Dressings;  Part  11. — Band- 
aging; Part  III. — Ligations;  Part  iv. — Amputations.  With  227  Illustrations. 
By  J.  EwiNG  Mears,  m.d..  Demonstrator  of  Surgery  in  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege, and  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Clinical  Surgery  in  the  Pennsylvania  Col- 
lege of  Dental  Surgery.     i2mo.  Price  $2.00 

"  Professor  Mears  has  written  a  convenient  and  use-  I  "  It  contains  a  great  deal  of  information  upon  the 
ful  book  for  students.  Wc  can  most  cordially  endorse  |  subjects  of  which  it  treats,  in  a  convenient  and  con- 
it  as  fulfilling  well  the  promise  made  in  its  modest  l  densed  form.  Each  division  is  well  illustrated,  thereby 
preface," — Cincinnati  Lancet  and  Clinic.  rendering  the  text  doubly  clear." — .Wa»  York  Medical 

I  Record. 

MILLER,  ON  ALCOHOL. 

Alcohol.    Its  Place  and  Power.    By  James  Miller,  f.r.c.s.   i2mo. 

MILLER  &  LIZARS,  ALCOHOL  AND  TOBACCO. 

Alcohol.  Its  Place  and  Power.  By  James  Miller,  f.k.c.s.  ;  and.  Tobacco, 
Its  Use  and  Abuse.  By  John  Lizars,  m.a.  The  two  essays  in  one  volume. 
l2mo.  Price  $1.00 


rUBLlCA  TIONS. 


29 


MENDENHALL,  VADE  MECUM. 

The  Medical  Student's  Vade  Mecum.  A  Compcnd  of  Anatomy,  Physiology, 
Chemistry,  The  Practice  of  Medicine,  Surgery,  Obstetrics,  etc.  By  George 
Mendenhall,  m.d.     Eleventh  Edition.     224  Illustrations.     8vo.         Price  $2.00 

MEIGS  AND  PEPPER,  DISEASES  OF  CHILDREN. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  Children.  Ry  J.  Forsyth  Meigs,  m.d., 
Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia,  etc.,  etc.,  and  William 
Pepper,  m.d.,  Physician  to  the  Philadelphia  Hospital,  Provost  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  Seventh  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  Enlarged.  A  Royal 
Octavo  Volume  of  over  1000  pages.  Price,  Cloth,  $6.00;  Leather,  557.00 

"  With  the  recent  additions  it  may  safely  be  pronounced  one  of  the  best  and  most  comprehensive  works  on  Dis- 
eases of  Children." — New  York  Medical  yournal. 

"  Must  be  regarded  as  the  most  complete  work  on  Diseases  of  Children  in  our  language." — Edinburgh  Medical 
jfjurnal. 

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yournal  of  Obstetrics. 

MATHIAS,  LEGISLATIVE  MANUAL. 

A  Rule  for  Conducting  Business  in  Meetings  of  Societies,  Legislative  Bodies, 
Town  and  Ward  Meetings,  etc.  By  Benj.  Mathias,  a.m.  Sixteenth  Edition. 
l6mo.  Price  .50 

MORTON,  REFRACTION  OF  EYE. 

The  Refraction  of  the  Eye.  Its  Diagnosis  and  the  Correction  of  its  En  ors. 
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ena observed,  which  is  at  once  scientific  and  elementary." — Edinburgh  Medical  yournal. 

OVERMAN,  MINERALOGY. 

Practical  Mineralogy,  Assaying,  and  Mining,  with  a  Description  of  the  Useful 
Minerals,  etc.  By  Frederick  Overman,  Mining  Engineer.  nth  Edition. 
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OGSTON,  MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 

Lectures  on  Medical  Jurisprudence.  By  Drs.  Francis  and  Francis  Ogston, 
Jr.     With  Copper-plate  Illustrations.     8vo.  Price  $6.00 

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ing all  that  the  distinguished  author  promised  for  it." — Ajnerican  yournal  of  Medical  Science. 

OLDBERG,  PRESCRIPTION  BOOK.     300  New  Prescriptions. 

Three  Hundred  Prescriptions,  Selected  Chiefly  from  the  Best  Collections  of 
Formulae  used  in  Hospital  and  Out-patient-practice,  with  a  Dose  Table,  and  a 
Complete  Account  of  the  Metric  System.  By  Oscar  Oldberg,  phar.  d..  Late 
Medical  Purveyor,  United  States  Marine  Hospital  Service ;  Professor  of  Materia 
Medica,  National  College  of  Pharmacy,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Member  of  the 
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Dose  Table  includes  nearly  all  of  the  remedies  that  have  a  place  in  the  current 
Materia  Medica. 


3° 


P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &-  CO.'S 


BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

THE  UNOFFICIAL  PHARM ACCPCEIA. 

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OTT,  ACTION  OF  MEDICINES. 

The  Action  of  Medicines.  By  Isaac  Ott,  m.d.,  late  Demonstrator  of  Experi- 
mental Physiology  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  With  22  Illustrations. 
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PAGE,  INJURIES  OF  THE   SPINE. 

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PAGET,  SURGICAL  PATHOLOGY. 

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PARKES,  PRACTICAL  HYGIENE.     Sixth  Edition. 

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PIESSE,  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PERFUMERY.    Fourth 
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PROCTER'S  PRACTICAL  PHARMACY. 

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Cloth,  $4.50. 

PARRISH,  ALCOHOLIC  INEBRIETY. 

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PUBLICATIONS.  31 


POTTER'S     COMPENDS,    FOR    PHYSICIANS    AND    "STU- 
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tion Room.     By  Samuel  O.  L.  Potter,  m.d. 
ANATOMY,  with  63  Illustrations. 
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macopoeia.    i2rao.     Cloth. 

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PENNSYLVANIA  HOSPITAL  REPORTS. 

Edited  by  a  Committee  of  the  Hospital  Staff.  J.  M.  DaCosTA,  m.d.,  and 
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and  present  Members  of  the  Staff.  With  Lithographic  and  other  Illustrations. 
8vo.  Price,  per  volume,  $2.00 

PEREIRA,  PRESCRIPTION  BOOK.     Sixteenth  Edition. 

Physician's    Prescription    Book.     Containing   Lists  of  Terms,   Phrases,  Con- 
tractions and  Abbreviations  used  in  Prescriptions,  Explanatory  Notes,  Gram- 
matical Construction  of  Prescriptions,  Rules  for  the  Pronunciation  of  Pharma- 
ceutical   Terms.      By   Jonathan    Pereira,    m.d.,    f.r.s.      Sixteenth    Edition. 
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This  last  is  a  most  valuable  addition,  and  will  materially  aid  the  Physician.  So 
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32  p.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &*  CO.'S  , 

POWER,   HOLMES,  ANSTIE  AND   BARNES  {Drs.). 

Reports  on  the  l^rogrcss  of  Medicine,  Surgery,  I'liysiology,  Midwifery,  Dis- 
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mology, etc.,  etc.     Reported  for  the  New  Sydenham  Society.     8vo.     Price  ;f2.oo 

PURCELL,  ON  CANCER. 

Cancer.  Its  Allies  and  other  Tumors,  with  Specia  Reference  to  their  Medi- 
cal and  Surgical  Treatment.  By  F.  Albert  Purcell,  m.d  ,  m.r.c.s.  Surgeon 
to  the  Cancer  Hospital,  Brompton,  England.     8vo.  Price  $3.75 

RADCLIFFE,  ON   EPILEPSY. 

On  Epilepsy,  Pain,  Paralysis,  and  other  Disorders  of  the  Nervous  System. 
By  Charles  Bland  Radcliffe,  m.d.     Illustrated.     i2mo.  Price  $1.50 

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ROBERTS,  MANUAL  OF  MIDWIFERY. 

The  Student's  Guide  to  the  Practice  of  Midwifery.  By  D.  Lloyd  Roberts, 
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comes  with  authority,  and  he  possesses  the  ability  to         For  its  size,  it  forms  a  remarkably  complete  compendi. 

condense,  and  at  the  same  time  present  a  subject  clear-  |    um  of  the  subject,  and  can  hardly  be  surpassed  in  the 

ly." — American  yournal  of  Medical  Science.  \    simplicity  and  clearness  of  its  explanations." — Otstet- 

"Concise,   clear,   and    practical." — Medital  Press  \    rical  jfournal  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 

and  Circular.  \ 

REYNOLDS,   ELECTRICITY, 

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RICHARDSON,    MECHANICAL    DENTISTRY.      Third    Edi- 
tion. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Dentistry.  By  Joseph  Richardson,  d.d.s. 
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RIGBY  AND  MEADOWS,  OBSTETRIC  MEMORANDA. 

Dr.  Rigby's  Obstetric  Memoranda.  Fourth  Edition.  Revised.  By  Alfred 
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PIGGOTT,  ON  COPPER. 

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PRINCE,  ORTHOPEDIC  SURGERY. 

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gery, etc.,  etc..  and  Numerous  Illustrations.     Svo.  Price  $4.50 

RYAN,  ON  MARRIAGE.  .    ,  ^  ,    . 

The  Philosophy  of  Marriage.  In  its  Social,  Moral  and  Physical  Relations 
and  Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs.  By  Michael  Ryan,  m.d.  Member  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  London.     i2mo.  Pnce  ?i.oo 


PUBLICATIONS.  33 

ROBERTS,  PRACTICE   OF   MEDICINE.     Fourth  Edition. 

The    Theory    and    I'ractice    of   Medicine.      Hy   I'"i<i-;i>i:ki(:k    Roukkts,   m.d. 
Third  American,  from  the  Fourth  London  Edition.     8vo. 

Price,  Cloth,  %'^.QO  ;   Leather,  g;6.oo 

Recommended  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Yale  and  Dartmouth  Colleges, 
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The  unexceptional  large  and  rapid  sale  of  this  book,  and  the  universal  commen- 
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"  It  contains  a  vast  deal  of  capital  instruction  for     Clinic. 


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RINDFLEISCH,  GENERAL  PATHOLOGY, 

General  Pathology;  a  Handbook  for  Students  and  Physicians.  By  Prof. 
Edward  Rindfleisch,  of  Wurzburg.  Translated  by  Wm.  H.  Mercur,  m.d.. 
Edited  and  Revised  by  James  Tyson,  m.d..  Professor  of  Morbid  Anatomy  and 
Pathology,  University  of  Pennsylvania.     Octavo.  Cloth, 

///  Rapid  Preparation. 

RINDFLEISCH,  PATHOLOGICAL  HISTOLOGY. 

A  Text-Book  of  Pathological  Histology.     By  Dr.   Edward  Rindfleisch. 
Translated  by  Drs.  Wm.  C.  Kolman   and   F.  T.  Miller.     208  Illustrations. 
8vo. 
Recommended  as  a  Text-Book  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  and  other  Med- 
ical Schools. 

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ROYLE  AND  HARLEY,  MATERIA  MEDICA.     Sixth  Edition. 

A  Manual  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics.  By  Dr.  J.  Forbes  Royle. 
Sixth  Edition.  Edited  by  John  Harley,  m.d.  840  pages  and  numerous  Illus- 
trations.    Demi  8vo.  Price  $5.00 

RUTHERFORD,  PRACTICAL  HISTOLOGY. 

Outlines  of  Practical  Histology  ;  being  the  Notes  of  the  Course  of  Practical 
Physiology  given  in  King's  College,  London,  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
By  William  Rutherford,  m.d.,  f.r.s.,  Professor  of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  (with  additional  leaves  for  Notes).  Third  Edi- 
tion.    Illustrated.  [In  Pcss. 

"  To  the  student  and  teacher  of  Practical  Histology,  this  work  can  hardly  help  being  a  great  boon.  It  is 
complete,  yet  short,  perfectly  clear  and  simple,  and  moreover  every  line  bespeaks  the  outcome  of  an  extensive 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  subject." — Medical  Times  and  Gazette ,  London. 


34  P.  BI.AKfSTOX,  SON  &^  CO.'S 


SANDERSON  AND  FOSTER,  THE    PHYSIOLOGICAL  LA- 
BORATORY. 

A  Hand-book  of  the  I'hysiological  Laboratory.  Being  Practical  Exercises  for 
Students  in  Physiology  and  Histology.  By  J.  Bl'RIjon  Sanderson,  m.d.,  E. 
Kli:in,  M.D.,  Michael  Foster,  m.u.,  f.r.s.,  and  T.  Lauder  Brunton,  m.d 
With  over  350  Illustrations  and  Appropriate  Letter-press  Explanations  and  Ref- 
erences. 

Price.  Two  Volumes,  Text  and  Plates,  separate,       -        -        -    $6.00 

"      One  "  "  "  bound  together,  Cloth,        5.00 

"         "  "  "  "  "  "  Leather,    6.00 

Adopted  as  a  Text-book  at  Yale  College,  and  used  at  other  Medical   Schools  in 

America  and  England. 

"  Recognizing  the  fact  that  Physiolog>'  is  emphatic-  |  "  We  confidently  recommend  it  to  the  attention  of  ail 

ally  an  experimental  science,  it  furnishes  minute  in-  |  who  are  interested  in  the  wide  and  fertile  field  of  Phy- 

structions    for    performing  a   great  variety  of  exper-  |  siological  research." — New  \'ork  Medical  Journal 
elv  desire  a  better  guiae 


inents.  A  student  could  scarcely  desire  a  better  guide."    '        "This  is  a  most  superb  bonk,  and  fills  a  hiatus  which 

every  physiological 
Medical  yournal. 


-Baston  Medical  and  Surgical  yournal.  |    every  physiological  student  has  lamented." — Chicago 

'  'edici 


SANDERSON,  PHYSIOLOGY.     Second  Edition. 

A  Syllabus  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  on  Physiology.  By  J.  Burdon  Sander- 
son, M.D.     For  the  Use  of  Students.     Second  Edition.     8vo.  Price  $1.50 

SANDERSON,  PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  IN  PHYSIOLOGY. 

8vo.     Illustrated.  Price  gi. 12 

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Disease  of  the  Heart.     Illustrated.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.25 

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SMITH,  MANUAL  OF  GYNAECOLOGY. 

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SMITH,  RINGWORM. 

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SMITH,  ON   NURSING. 

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PUBLICA  TIONS. 


. 35 

SMITH,  ON  CHILDREN. 

Clinical  Studies  of  Diseases  in   Children.     By  Eustace  Smith,  m.d.   Second 
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MEDICAL  HERESIES,  HISTORICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

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SHEPPARD,  ON  MADNESS. 

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A  Systematic  Handbook  of  Volumetric  Analysis,  or  the  Quantitative  Estima- 
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36  P.  BLAh'ISTON,  SON  ."-  CO:S 


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tt.  in  warn  ol  n  practical  manual  relating  especially  to 
iliscnses  of  the  \.QK\\\."—Mfdi>.al  BrifJ. 


SEWELL,  DENTAL  ANATOMY  AND  SURGERY. 

A  Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy  unci  Surgery,  Including  the  Extraction  of  Teeth. 
IJy  H.  E.  Skwkll,  d.u.s.,  m.d.     With  77  Illustrations.     i2mo.  IVice  Si.25 

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the  management  of  many  incidental  affections  connected 
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handed  over  to  the  specialist." — I'aci/tc  MiJ.  jfournat 

STILLE,  ON  MENINGITIS. 

Epidemic  Meningitis,  or  Cercbro-spinal  Meningitis.  By  Alfred  Stii.le,  m.d., 
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STOKES,  DISEASES  OF  THE  HEART. 

The  Diseases  of  the  Heart  and  Aorta.  By  William  Stokes,  m.d.  Thick 
8vo.  Price  $3.00 

SWAIN,  SURGICAL  EMERGENCIES. 

Surgical  Emergencies:  Concise  Descriptions  of  the  Various  Accidents  and 
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C.S.     Eighty-two  Illustrations.     i2mo.  Price  $2.00 

Contents. — Chapter  I.  Injuries  to  the  Head.  IL  Injuries  to  the  Eye.  III.  Injuries  to  the  Mouth, 
Pharynx,  CEsophagus,  and  Laryn.x.  IV,  The  Chest.  V.  The  Upper  Extremity.  VI.  The  Abdomen.  VII. 
The  Pelvis.  VIII.  The  Lower  Extremity.  IX.  Emergencies  connected  with  Parturition.  X.  Poisoning. 
XI.  Antiseptic  Treatment.     XII.  Apparatus  and  Dressing. 

"  Many  surgeons  will  thank  Dr.  Swain  for  the  trouble  he  has  taken  to  put  them  easily  in  possession  of  this  re- 
fresher of //a{/' forgotten  knowledge. —  The   Practitioner. 

SWERINGEN,   REFERENCE  BOOK. 

A  Pharmaceutical  Lexicon  or  Dictionary  of  Pharmaceutical  Science.  Contain- 
ing explanations  of  the  various  subjects  and  terms  of  Pharmacy,  with  appropriate 
selections  from  the  Collateral  Sciences.  Formula;  for  Officinal,  Empirical,  and 
Dietetic  Preparations,  etc.,  etc.     By  Hiram.  V.  Sweringen,  m.d.     8vo. 

Price,  Cloth,  $3.00;  Leather,  $4.00 

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THOMPSON,  LITHOTOMY  AND  LITHOTRITY. 

Practical  Lithotomy  and  Lithotrity ;  or,  an  Inquiry  into  the  best  Modes  of 
Removing  Stone  from  the  Bladder.  By  Sir  Henry  Thompson,  f.r.c.s.,  Emer- 
itus Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  in  University  College.  Third  Edition.  8vo. 
With  87  Engravings.  Price  $3.50 

"The  chapters  of  most  interest  are  those  in  which  Bigelow's  operation  is  discussed,  and  the  final  one,  in 
which  is  a  record  of  500  operations  for  stone  in  cases  of  male  adults  under  the  author's  care.  Such  a  table  ha.i 
never  before  been  compiled  by  any  surgeon." — Lancet. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

URINARY  ORGANS.     Seventh  Edition. 

Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs.  Clinical  Lectures.  Seventh  London  Edition. 
Enlarged,  with  73  Illustrations.  Price,  Cloth,  51.25  ;  Paper,  .75 

ON  THE  PROSTATE. 

Diseases  of  the  Prostate.  Their  Pathology  and  Treatment.  Fifth  London 
Edition.     8vo.     With  Numerous  Plates.     Price,  Cloth,  ;?  1.25  ;  Paper,  .75. 

CALCULOUS  DISEASES. 

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Remedies.     Second  Edition.     i6mo.  Price  $\.oo 

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cious  theories  in  the  effort  to  obtain  practically  useful  results,  as  clever  with  his  pen  as  he  is  with  the  sound  or 
lithotrite,  one  can  scarcely  wonder  that  he  is  esteemed  the  master  that  he  is." — American  yourt.al  of  M.dica- 
Science. 


PUBLICA  TIONS. 


37 


By  E.  S.  TiiOMP- 
Pricc  .60 


THOMPSON,   COUGHS   AND   COLDS. 

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THOROWGOOD,  MATERIA   MEDICA. 

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BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

ON  ASTHMA. 

The  Forms,  Nature,  and  Treatment  of  Asthma. 


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TUSON,  VETERINARY  PHARMACOPCEIA. 

A  Pharmacopoeia,  Including  the  Outlines  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeu- 
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Richard  V.  Tuson,  f.c.s.     Third  Edition.     i2mo.  Price  $2.50 

"  Not  only  practitioners  and  students  of  veterinary  medicine,  but  chemists  and  druggists  will  find  that  this 
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THUDICHUM  ON  THE  URINE.     Second  Edition. 

The  Pathology  of  the  Urine  and  Complete  Guide  to  Analysis.     By  John  L. 
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non,  and  to  such  the  new  edition  must  be  9-  most  welcome  guest." — PhiUidelphia  Medical  Times. 

TROUSSEAU,  CLINICAL  MEDICINE. 

Lectures  on  Clinical  Medicine,  Delivered  at  the  Hotel  Dieu,  Paris,  by  A. 
Trousseau,  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine  to  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  Paris, 
etc.,  etc.  Translated  from  the  Third  Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition  by  P.  Vic- 
tor Bazire,  M.D  ,  London  and  Paris  ;  and  John  Rose  Cormack,  m.d.,  Edin- 
burgh, F.R.S.,  etc.  With  a  full  Index,  Table  of  Contents,  etc.  2  vols.  8vo. 
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Trousseau's  Lectures  have  attained  a  reputation,  both  in  England  and  in  this 
country,  far  greater  than  any  work  of  a  similar  character  heretofore  written.  In 
order  to  bring  the  work  within  the  reach  of  all  the  profession,  the  publishers  now 
issue  an  American  edition,  containing  all  the  lectures  as  contained  in  the  five-vol- 
ume Sydenham  edition,  at  a  much  lower  price.  Below  are  a  few  only  of  the  many 
favorable  opinions  expressed  of  the  work : — 


"  A  clever  translation  of  Prof.  Trousseau's  admirable 
and  exhaustive  work  ;  the  best  book  of  reference  upon 
the  Practice  of  Medicine." — Indiana  Medical  Gazette. 


TEST  TYPES, 


"  We  scarcely  know  of  any  book  better  fitted  for 
presentation  to  a  young  man  when  entering  upon  the 
practical  work  of  his  life." — London  Medical  Times 
and  Gazette. 


Selections  from  Snellen's  Test  Types  mounted  upon  heavy  card  board  ;  suit- 
able for  hanging  in  the  office.  Price  50  cents 

TIDY,  MODERN  CHEMISTRY. 

A  Hand-Book  of  Modern  Chemistry.     Organic  and  Inorganic.     By  C.  Mev- 
MOTT  Tidy,  m.d.     8vo.  Price  $5.00 

"We  doubt  if  any  other  chemical  work  containing  so  large  an  amount  of  information  could  be  procured." — 
Dublin  Medical  fournal. 


38  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &-   CO.'S 


TILT,  THE  CHANGE  OF  LIFE  IN  WOMEN. 

The  Chan{,'c  of  Life  in  }lcalth  and  Disease.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Diseases  incidental  to  Women  at  the  Decline  of  Life.  By  Edward  John  Tilt. 
M.D.     Fourth  London  Edition.     8vo.  Price,  Cloth,  51.25;  Paper  cover,  .75 

"  We  believe  Dr.  'lilt  briiiRS  much  more  than  ordinary  merit  to  bear  on  his  subject,  and  handles  it  accord- 
ingly.    Few  books  arc  isNUcd  thai  arc  more  indispensable  to  the  general  pr.iclilioncr." — I'liila.  Med.  Titnes. 

"  Dr.  'l"ilt's  clear  and  concise  style  makes  the  book  at  once  a  pleasant  one  to  read  and  an  easy  guide  to  follow, 
and  we  arc  quite  sure  it  is  the  most  v.iluable  one  we  have  on  the  subject." — Botton  Med.  &•  Surg.  Journal. 

"  The  best  work  on  the  subject." — London  I.iincet. 

TOMES,  DENTAL  ANATOMY.     Second  Edition. 

A  Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy,  Human  and  Comparative.  By  C.  .S.  To.mes, 
D.D.s.     With  179  Illustrations.     Second  Edition.     i2mo.  Price  $4.25 

TOMES,  DENTAL  SURGERY. 

A  System  of  Dental  Surgery,  l^y  John  Tomes,  f.r.s.  The  Second  Edition, 
Revised  and  Enlarged.     By  C.  S.  Tomes,  d.d.s.     With  263  Illustrations.     i2mo. 

Price  55.00 

"  We  rejoice  that  such  books  as  these  (Dr.  Tomes'  Works)  are  demanded  by  the  profession,  and  that  the  men 
to  write  them  arc  furnished  by  the  profession." — Denial  Cosmos. 

TAFT,  OPERATIVE  DENTISTRY.     Fourth  Edition. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Operative  Dentistry.  By  Jonathan  Taft,  d.d.s. 
Fourth  Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition.     Over  100  Illustrations.     8vo. 

Price,  Cloth,  $4.25  ;  Leather,  5.00 

"All  the  important  operations,  in  all  their  modif!ca>  \        "  It  is  a  thorough  and  complete  treatise  on  the  Art 

r;ons,  are   clearly  discussed   by  the   author,   and    the  '    of  Practical  Dentistry." — London  Medical  Timts  and 

work  is  highly  practical  throughout." — Dental  Regis-  Gazette, 
ler. 

TANNER,  INDEX  OF  DISEASES.     Second  Edition. 

An  Inde.\  of  Diseases  and  their  Treatment.    By  Thos.  Hawkins  Tanner,  .m.d.. 

F.R.c.P.    Second  Edition.    Revised  and  Enlarged.    By  W.  H.  Broaduent,  .m.d. 

With  Additions.     Appendix  of  Formulae,  etc.     8vo.  Price  $3.00 

By  this  useful  hand-book  the  character  of  any  disease  may  be  determined  in  a 

moment,  and  the  general  outline  of  treatment  pursued  by  the  best  authorities  made 

apparent. 

"  This  work,  like  others  from  the  gifted  author,  has  "  Finally,  a  chapter  on  the  climates,  countries,  mine- 
already  won  for  itself  a  reputation."  .  .  .  "  It  is  ral  springs,  etc.,  best  adapted  to  the  various  classes  of 
in  tnith  what  its  title  indicates." — New  York  Medical  invalids,  makes  this  work  the  most  complete  practi- 
Record.                                                                                    j  t'oner's  manual  that  we  have  yet  seen. — Chicago  Medi- 

I  cal  Times. 

RY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

THE  DISEASES  OF  INFANCY. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  Infancy  and  Childhood.  Third  Edi- 
tion. Carefully  Revised  and  much  Enlarged.  By  Alfred  Meadows,  m.d. 
8vo.  Price  $3.00 

Recommended  as  a  Text-book  at  Jefferson  Medical  College  and  other  schools  of 
Medicine. 

"One  of  the  most  careful,  ornate,  and  accessible  I  "  We  corusider  the  views  of  the  .nuihor  on  the  subject 
manuals  on  the  subject." — London  Lancet.  of  therapeutics  as    rational    in   the  highest  degree." — 

I    Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  yournal. 

MEMORANDA  OF  POISONS. 

A  Memoranda  of  Poisons  and  their  Antidotes  and  Tests.  Fifth  American, 
from  the  Last  London  Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged.  In  Press. 

This  most  complete  Toxicological  Manual  should  be  within  reach  of  all  physi- 
cians and  pharmacists,  and  as  an  addition  to  every  family  library,  would  be  the 
means  of  saving  life  and  allaying  pain  when  the  delay  of  sending  for  a  physician 
would  prove  fatal. 


PUBLIC  A  riONS.  39 


TIBBETS,  MEDICAL  ELECTRICITY. 

A  Hand-book  of  Medical  Electricity.  Giving  full  directions  for  its  Applica- 
tion, etc.     By  Herbert  Tibbets,  m.d.     64  Illustrations.     8vo. 

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  COLLEGE  OF  PHYSICIANS. 

The  Transactions  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia.  New  Series. 
Vols.  I,  II,  III,  IV.     8vo.  Price,  per  volume,  %2.lo 

Vol.  V.  Containing  Articles  and  Discourses  by  Drs.  Atlee,  DaCosta,  Mills, 
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and  others.    Just  Ready.  Cloth,  Gift  Top,  ^3. 50 

TYSON,  BRIGHT'S  DISEASE  AND  DIABETES. 

A  Treatise  on  Diabetes  and  Bright's  Disease.  With  Especial  Reference  to 
Pathology  and  Therapeutics.  By  James  Tyson,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Pathology 
and  Morbid  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  With  Colored  Plates 
and  many  Wood  Engravings.     8vo.  Price  $3.50 

"This  volume  is  the  outcome  of  some  fifteen  years'  '  "The  symptoms  are  clearly  defined,  and  the  treat- 
special  study  and  observation,  and  will  be  found  to  be  i  ment  is  exceedingly  well  described,  so  that  every  one 

a  very  well  prepared  monograph His  direc-  I  reading  the  book  must  be  profited  " — Cincinnati  La n- 

tions  are  clear  and  minute. — Med.  and  Surg.  Reporter.  \  cet  and  Clinic. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

GUIDE  TO  THE  EXAMINATION  OF   URINE. 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Examination  of  Urine.  For  the  use  of  Physicians  and 

Students.    With  Colored  Plates  and  Numerous  Illustrations  Engraved  on  Wood. 

Fourth  Edition.     i2mo.  Price  ^1.50 

Advantage  has  been  taken,  in  bringing  out  a  newr  edition  of  this  work,  not  only  to 

correct  the  previous  one,  but  to  make  such  additions  of  new  Facts  and  Processes  as 

would  add  to  its  value  without  materially  increasing  its  size. 

"  Dr.  Tyson  commences  with  a  short  account  of  the  theory  of  renal  secretion,  the  physical  and  chemical  charac- 
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THE  CELL  DOCTRINE.     Second  Edition. 

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TURNBULL,  ARTIFICIAL  ANAESTHESIA. 

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TEALE,  DANGERS   TO    HEALTH.     Third  Edition. 

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40  P.  B  LA  A' IS  TON,  SON  &-  CO.'S 


VACHER,  CHEMISTRY. 

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Price  .50 

VIRCHOW,  POST-MORTEM  EXAMINATIONS.  Second  Edi- 
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WAGSTAFFE,   HUMAN  OSTEOLOGY. 

The  Student's  Guide  to  Human  Osteology.  By  William  Warwick  Wag- 
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WATERS,  DISEASES  OF  THE  CHEST.     Second  Edition. 

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W^EDLS,  DENTAL  PATHOLOGY. 

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WHITTAKER,  ON  THE  URINE. 

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PUBLICA  TIONS.  41 


WEST,  THE  DISEASES  OF  WOMEN.     Fourth  Edition. 

Lectures  on    the    Diseases   of   Women.     By  Charles  West,  m.d.     Fourth 
London  Edition.     Revised  and  in  part  re-written  by  the  Author.     With  Numer- 
ous Additions  by  J.  Mathews  Duncan,  m.d.,  Obstetric   Physician  to  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital     8vo.  Price  $5.00 
Drs.  West  and   Duncan    are,  perhaps,  the  most  celebrated    London  physicians 
giving  attention  to  the  Diseases  of  Women,  and   together  have  made  a  most  com- 
plete work,  either  for  the  physician  or  student. 

WILKS,  PATHOLOGICAL  ANATOMY. 

Lectures  on  Pathological  Anatomy.  By  Samuel  Wilkes,  f.r.s.  Second 
Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged  by  Walter  Moxon,  m.d.,  f.r.s.,  Physician  to 
and  Lecturer  at  Guy's  Hospital,  London.     8vo,  Price  $6.00 

BY   same   author. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System,  Delivered  at  Guy's  Hospital, 
London.     New  Edition,  with  Additions,  Numerous  Illustrative  Cases,  etc.     8vo. 

Cloth,  ^6.00 

"A  book  of  great  value,  embodying  as  It  does  the  results  of  the  experience  and  observation  of  one  of  the  most 
accomplished  of  the  London  Hospital  Physicians." — American  yournal  of  Medical  Science. 

WRIGHT,  ON  HEADACHES.     Ninth  Thousand. 

Headaches,  their  Causes,  Nature  and  Treatment.  By  Henry  G.  Wright, 
M.D     i2mo.  Price  .50 

WILSON,  ON  DRAINAGE. 

Drainage  for  Health ;  or,  Easy  Lessons  in  Sanitary  Science,  with  Numerous 
Illustrations.  By  Joseph  Wilson,  m.d..  Medical  Director  United  States  Navy. 
One  Vol.     Octavo.  Price  $1.00 

"Dr.  Wilson  is  favorably  known  as  one  of  the  lead-  j        "  Easily  understood,  and  briefly  and  concisely  pre- 
ing  American   writers  on  hygiene  and  public  health.        sented." — Providence  yournal. 
The  book  deserves  popularity." — Medical  and  Surgi-  "  Will  be  found  of  value." — Boston  Transcript, 

cal  Reporter.  \        "  Worthy  of  praise  as  a  popular  statement  of  the 

"Well  written  and  well  illustrated.     Attention  to  its        subject." — Boston  yournal  oy  Chemistry. 

teachings  may  save  much  disease  and  perhaps  many  \        "  Will  be  sure  to  be  a  harbinger  of  good  in  every  fam- 

lives." — Cincinnati  Gazette.  j    ily  whose  good  fortune  it  may  be  to  possess  a  copy." — 

"  Interesting  as  well  as  useful." — Philadelphia  Led-  \    Builder  and  Wood  Worker. 
^er. 

BY   SAME   author. 

NAVAL  HYGIENE. 

Naval  Hygiene,  or,  Human  Health  and  Means  for  Preventing  Disease.  With 
Illustrative  Incidents  derived  from  Naval  E.xperience.  Illustrated.  Second 
Edition.     Svo.  Price  S3.00 

WILSON,    HOW  TO  LIVE. 

Health  and  Healthy  Homes.  A  Guide  to  Personal  and  Domestic  Hygiene. 
By  George  Wilson,  m.d..  Medical  Officer  of  Health.  Edited  by  Jos.  G. 
Richardson,  m.d..  Professor  of  Hygiene  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
314  pages.     i2mo.  Price  $1.00 

Chapter  i. — Introductory,  page  17.  11.  The  Human  Body,  33.  in.  Causes  of  Disease,  66.  rv.  Food  and 
Diet,  119.  V.  Cleanliness  and  Clothing,  169.  Vl.  Exercise,  Recreation  and  Training,  187.  wi.  Home  and  Its 
Surroundings,  Drainage,  Warming,  etc.,  221.     vni.   Infectious  Diseases  and  their  Prevention,  269. 

"A  most  useful,  and  in  every  way,  acceptable  book." — New  York  Herald. 

"  Marked  throughout  by  a  sound,  scientific  spirit,  and  an  absence  of  all  hasty  generalizations,  sweeping  asser- 
tions, and  abuse  cf  statistics  in  support  of  the  writer's  particular  views.  .  .  .  We  cannot  speak  too  highly  of 
a  work  which  we  have  read  with  entire  satisfaction." — Medical  Timet  and  Gazette. 

BY    SAME    AUTHOR. 

A  HAND-BOOK  OF  HYGIENE 

And  Sanitary  Science.  With  Illustrations.  Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and 
Enlarged.     8vo.  Price  $2.75 


42  /*.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &*  CO.'S 


WILSON,  HUMAN  ANATOMY.     Tenth  Edition. 

The  Anatomist's  Vade-Mecum.  Ciencral  and  Special.  By  Prof.  Erasmus  Wil- 
son. Edited  by  Geok(;e  Uuchanan,  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow;  and  HiCNRV  E.  Clark,  Lecturer  on  Anatomy  at  the  Royal 
Infirmary  School  of  Medicine,  Glasgow.  Tenth  Edition.  With  450  Engravings 
(including  26  Colored  Plates).     Crown  8vo.  Price  $6.00 

Recommended  as  a  Text-book  at  Rush  Medical  College,  Chicago ;  Bellevue  Hos- 
pital, New  York ;  St.  Louis  Medical  College  ;  Yale  and  Dartmouth  Schools ,  and 
many  other  Colleges. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

HEALTHY  SKIN.     Eighth  Edition. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  .Skin  and  Hair  ;  their  Preservation  and  Manage- 
ment.    Eighth  Edition.     i2mo.     Paper.  Price  $1. 00 

WILSON,  SEA  VOYAGES  FOR  HEALTH. 

The  Ocean  as  a  Health  Resort.  A  Hand-book  of  Practical  Information  as  to 
Sea  Voyages,  for  the  Use  of  Tourists  and  Invalids.  By  W^m.  S.  Wilson,  l.r.c.p. 
Lond.,  M.R.c.s.E.  With  a  Chart  showing  the  Ocean  Routes,  and  Illustrating  the 
Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea.     Crown  8vo.  Price  52.50 

Chapter  1.  Curative  Effects  of  the  Ocean  Climate.  2.  The  Various  Health  Voyages.  3.  Time  of  Starting — 
Cheesing  a  Ship.  4.  Preliminary  Arrangements.  5.  Life  at  Sea.  6.  Climate  and  Weather.  7.  Management  of 
the  Health  at  Sea.  8.  Occupations  and  Amusements  at  Sea.  9.  Objects  of  Interest  at  Sea.  10.  End  of  the 
Voyage — Future  Plans.  11.  The  Homeward  Voyage.  12.  Australia:  its  Climate,  Cities,  and  Health  Resort*. 
13.  South  Africa  and  its  Climate.     14.  The  Meteorology  of  the  Ocean. 

Appendix  A. — Outfit  Required  for  a  Voyage  to  Australia.  B.  Names  and  Addresses  of  some  of  the  Principal 
Shipping  Firms. 

"  All  the  information  is  supplied  by,  or  based  upon,  the  actual  experience  of  the  author ;  and  the  book  may  be 
confidently  recommended  to  all  who  have  to  undertake,  without  previous  experience,  a  sea  voyage  of  any  length. 
Medical  men  may  consult  it  with  advantage,  and  commend  it  to  those  patients  whom  they  may  advise  to  try  the 
effect  of  a  long  voyage  at  sea." — Medical  Tintes  and  Gazette. 

"  We  have  read  every  page  of  this  book,  and  have  derived  both  instruction  and  amusement." — Lancet. 

WELLS,  OVARIAN  AND  UTERINE  TUMORS.     Just  Out. 

The  Diagnosis  and  Surgical  Treatment  of  Ovarian  and  Uterine  Tumors.  By 
T.  Spencer  Wells,  m.d.     Illustrated.     8vo.  Price,  Cloth,  S7.00 

So  long  a  time  having  elapsed  since  Dr.  Wells  has  collected  the  results  of  his 
large  experience  in  book  form,  the  present  volume  will  be  eagerly  looked  for  by  all 
interested  in  this  very  important  subject. 

WOLFE,  ON  DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Diseases  and  Injuries  of  the  Eye.  Being  a  Course  of 
Systematic  and  Clinical  Lectures  to  Students  and  Medical  Practitioners.  By  M. 
Wolfe,  f.r.c.p.e..  Senior  Surgeon  to  the  Glasgow  Ophthalmic  Institution,  etc. 
With  10  Colored  Plates,  and  numerous  other  Illustrations.  Octavo.       Price  57.00 

WALKER,  INTERMARRIAGE.  , 

Intermarriage,  or.  The  Mode  in  which,  and  the  Causes  why,  Beauty,  Health 
and  Intellect  result  from  certain  Unions ;  and  Deformity,  Disease  and  Insanity 
from  others.     Illustrated.     i2mo.  Price  Jr. 00 

WARD'S  COMPEND  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

A  Compend  of  Chemistry  for  Chemical  and  Medical  Students.  By  G.  Mason 
Ward,  m.d..  Demonstrator  of  Chemistry  in  Jefferson  Medical  College.  Phila- 
delphia. Containing  a  Table  of  Elements  and  Tables  for  the  Detection  of 
Metals  in  Solutions  of  Mixed  Substances,  etc.     i2mo.     Cloth. 

Interleaved  for  the  addition  of  Notes,  51-25  ;  plain,  $1.00 


PUB  Lie  A  TIONS.  43 


WOODMAN  and  TIDY,  MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 

Forensic  Medicine  and  Toxicology.  By  W.  Bathurst  \V(jodman,  m.d., 
Physician  to  the  London  Hospital,  and  Charles  Meymott  Tidy,  f.c.s..  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  and  Medical  Jurisprudence  at  the  London  Hospital.  With 
Chromo-Lithographic  Plates,  representing  the  Appearance  of  the  Stomach  in 
Poisoning  by  Arsenic,  Corrosive  Sublimate,  Nitric  Acid,  Oxalic  Acid  ;  the  Spectra 
of  Blood  and  the  Microscopic  Appearance  of  Human  and  other  Hairs;  and 
116  other  Illustrations.     Large  octavo.     Sold  only  by  Subscription. 

Price,  Cloth,  {^7.50;  Medical  Sheep,  $8.50;  Law  Leather,  $8.50 

"  We  have  no  hesitation  in  pronouncing  the  work  to  be  one  of  unusual  merit.  More  readable  than  Taylor, 
more  systematic  in  its  arrangement,  and  more  practical  in  its  instruction,  it  ■will  prove  to  the  medical  jurist,  not 
less  than  to  the  general  practitioner,  a  storehouse  of  useful  knowledge,  conveyed  in  an  unusually  graphic  style." — 
Dublin  yournal  of  Medical  Science. 

"The  authors  of  this  truly  great  work  have  largely  supplied  the  want  felt,  sooner  or  later,  by  almost  every 
doctor." — Cincinnati  Lancet  and  Observer. 

"All  the  best  known  works  on  Medical  Jurisprudence  have  been  laid  under  contribution  for  the  production  of 
the  present  volume.  It  contains  almost  everything  that  can  be  found  in  other  works  on  the  subject;  but  it  is  no 
mere  compilation.  Dr.  Woodman  and  Dr.  Tidy  have  both  thought  out  the  subject  for  themselves,  and,  with  rare 
industry  and  acumen,  have  brought  together  a  mass  of  facts  which  is  little  short  of  astounding.  The  book  is 
worthy  to  take  its  place  alongside  of  any  work  on  the  same  subject,  and  must  prove  of  great  use  to  all  who  prac- 
tice in  criminal  courts,  and  to  all  medical  practitioners.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  recommending  it  to  our  read- 
ers."— London  Lancet. 

"Altogether  the  work  will  rank  with  the  best  of  its  class  as  a  medico-legal  hand-book,  and  cannot  fail  to  gain 
a  wide  popularity." — New  York  Medical  Record. 

"  It  cannot  be  otherwise  than  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  boundless  subject  of  medical  jurisprudence." — 
Albany  Law  yournal. 

"The  scope  of  this  book  is  very  wide,  and  its  execution  worthy  of  all  commendation." — Philadelphia  Legal 
Intelligencer. 

WYTHE,  ON  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

The  Microscopist.  A  Manual  of  Microscopy  and  Compendium  of  the  Micro- 
scopic Sciences,  Micro-Mineralogy,  Micro-Chemistry,  Biology,  Histology,  and 
Practical  Medicine.  By  Joseph  H.  Wythe,  a.m.,  m.d.  Fourth  Edition.  252 
Illustrations.     8vo.  Price,  Cloth,  ^3.00 ;  Leather,  §4.00 

An  Index  and  Glossary  have  been  combined  in  this  edition,  so  as  to  be  a  source 
of  valuable  information.  Notices  of  recent  additions  to  the  microscope,  together 
with  the  genera  of  microscopic  plants,  have  been  given  in  an  Appendix. 

"  From  what  we  knew  of  the  author  of  this  work,  as  |  "  This  is  one  of  thft  most  valuable  text-books  on  mi- 

a  skilled  practical  Microscopist,  a  successful  teacher  of  I  croscopy  ever  offered  to  students  or  practitioners   of 

the  science,  and  a  practitioner  of  medicine  and  surgery  I  medicine.     This  edition  has  been  greatly  enhanced  in 

of  long  and  varied  experience,  we  had  a  right  to  expect  value  by  the  addition  of  chapters  on  the  use  of  the 

ii good  book  from  his  hands.  Our  expectations  are  fully  j  microscope  in  pathology,  diagnosis,  and  etiology,  and 

realized  in  the  volume  before  us.     The  style  is  clear  1  numerous  new  illustrations,  some  of  which  are  from 

and  distinct,  and  one  reads  the  book  with  the  utmost  \  Rindfleisch. 

facility  of  comprehension.  It  is  the  more  valuable  to  '  "The  author  very  carefully  brings  out  every  neces- 
the  physician  and  medical  student  on  account  of  its  j  sary  fact  and  principle  relating  to  the  use  of  the  micro- 
closer  application  of  the  microscope  to  medical  subjects  j  scope,  and  now  that  this  instrument  has  become  an  es- 
than  we  find  elsewhere.  The  numerous  plates,  many  I  sential  part  of  every  practitioner's  armamentarium,  a 
of  which  are  beautifully  colored,  are  not  to  be  excelled.  |  practical  guide  and  reference  book  is  also  a  necessity. 
We  feel  proud  of  it  as  an  American  production." —  and  we  are  fully  warranted  in  reiterating  the  statement 
Pacific  Medical  and  Surgical  yournal.  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  text-books  ever 

offered  to  students  and  practitioners  of  medicine." — 
The  Cincinnati  Lancet  and  Clinic. 

BY   SAME   AUTHOR. 

DOSE  AND  SYMPTOM  BOOK.     Eleventh  Edition. 

The  Physician's  Pocket  Dose  and  Symptom  Book.  Containing  the  Doses  and 
Uses  of  all  the  Principal  Articles  of  the  Materia  Medica,  and  Original  Prepara- 
tions.    Eleventh  Revised  Edition. 

Price,  Cloth,  $i.cx);  Leather,  with  Tucks  and  Pocket,  $1.21, 

"  The  chapter  on  Dietetic  Preparations  will  be  found  useful  to  all  practicing  physicians,  most  of  whom  have  but 
little  acquaintance  with  the  mode  of  preparing  the  various  articles  of  diet  for  tne  sick." — Boston  Medical  and 
Surgical  yournal. 

"  Many  a  hard-worked  practitioner  will  find  it  a  useful  little  work  to  have  on  his  study  table." — Canada  Medical 
and  Sui gical  yournal. 


44  P-  BLAKISTON,  SON  &-  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


WHEELER,  MEDICAL  CHEMISTRY. 

Medical  Chemistry.  Including,'  the  Outlines  of  Organic  and  Physiological 
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NOW  READY. 

Diseases  of  the  Liver. 

BY  GEORGE  HARLEY,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Etc., 

Author  of  "  The  Urine  and  Its  Derangements,"  and  "  Diabetes,  Its  Various  Forms  and  Tieatmem." 

On  Fine  Paper,  from  Good  TyPe,  with   Colored  Plates  and   Thirty-six   Wood-cuts 
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THE  Publishers  call  special  attention  to  this  work,  the  only  thorough  book  now 
before  the  profession.     The  reputation  of  its  distinguished  author  i#a  guar- 
antee of  its  merits. 

THE  AUTHOR,  IN  HIS  PREFACE,  SA^b; 

THIS  NEW  TREA  TISE,  which  I  have  thought  fit  to  entitle  Diseases  of  the  Liver,  with 
and  without  Jaundice,  with  special  application  to  Diagnosis  and  Treatment, 
embodies  within  it  the  whole  substance  of  my  original  monograph  on  Jaundice  and 
Diseases  of  the  Liver;  though  greater  than  it,  both  as  regards  its  scope  and 
materials,  and  the  large  amount  of  clinical  and  scientific  data  that  has  never 
before  been  collected  together  into  one  volume;  while  in  a  great  many  instances 
it  gives  a  new  rendering  to  old  clinical  facts,  by  presenting  them  to  the  reader  in 
the  light  of  modern  pathological  science. 

As  I  think  time  is  quite  of  as  much  value  to  the  professional  as  it  is  to  the  mercantile  man, 
I  have  endeavored  to  condense  my  materials  to  the  utmost,  without  running  the 
risk  of  endangering  their  perspicuity.  Added  to  which,  as  this  treatise  has  not 
been  penned  either  for  the  use  of  the  tyro  or  the  dilettante  in  medicine,  but  for 
that  of  my  qualified  brethren,  I  shall  neither  waste  time  by  entering  into  detailed 
accounts  of  the  literature,  nor  give  tedious,  and  probably  at  the  same  time  profit- 
less, discussions  of  the  theories  of  the  mechanism  of  jaundice  in  hepatic  derange- 
ments. Taking  care,  however,  in  order  that  it  may  carry  more  weight  with  it 
in  the  eyes  of  the  reader,  to  illustrate  it  freely  with  cases  reported  by  indepen- 
dent observers,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  While,  in  order,  again,  that  the  reader 
may  be  able  to  see  for  himself,  at  a  glance,  how  many  of  the  old-fashioned  theories 
of  the  pathology  of  jaundice  have  been  abandoned,  as  well  as  how  many  new  ones 
have  been  espoused,  I  have  put  my  views,  in  accordance  with  the  facts  and 
arguments  expressed  throughout  the  body  of  the  volume,  into  a  concise  and 
diagrammatic  tabular  form. 

/  WOULD  DIRECT  the  special  attention  of  my  readers  to  the  chapter  devoted  to 
treatment,  as  well  as  that  at  the  end  of  the  book,  entitled  Hints  on  Diagnosis. 

SYNOPSIS    OF  THE   CONTENTS. 

Introduction,  giving  a  general  view  of  the  scope  of  the 
roiume.and  the  application  of  Physiological  Chemistry 
to  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  Hepatic  affections. 

Chemistry,  Physics  and  Physiology  of  the  Liver  and 
its  secretions. 

EtioloK>'  of  Jaundice — different  kinds — causes  pro- 
ducing tb-m — treatment. 

Signs  and  Symptoms  of  Liver  Diseases. 
^General  remarks  on  all  Icindg  of  Hepatic  Remedies. 

Special  Hepatic  Medicines;  their  modes  of  action 
■ua  uses. 

Mineral  Waters,  Wines  and  Foods ;  treatment  of 
Pyrexia,  Cerebral  complications,  etc. 

Congenital  and  Hereditary  Liver  Diseases,  Bilious- 
Qcss;  Its  Varieties  and  Treatment. 

Jaundice  from  Knervation,  all  its  forms  explained  and 
their  different  Treatments 

Different  forms  of  Inflammation  of  the  Liver  and  their 
Treatments. 

Jaundice  caused  by  Diaea.se  Germs,  Yellow  Fevers. 
Contagious  and  Epidemic  Jaundice,  different  kinds  and 
Uieir  Treatments. 

Jaundice  of  Pregnancy. 

Different  forms  of  Hepatic  Atrophy  and  Ascites. 


Biliary  Concretions,  Iiupissated  Bile.  Gall-Stones  ol 
every  kind  and  form,  direct  and  indirect  effects  of, 
their  Symptoms  and   Treatment,  verj*  fully  gone  into. 

Different  kinds  of  Colics,  etc. 

Catarrhal  Jaundice. 

Jaundice  from  Poisons. 

Different  kinds  of  Jaundice  from  Permanent  01>stnic- 
tions. 

Physiological  Chemistry  of  the  Excretions,  Urine 
and  Stools,  as  a  Guide  to  Diagnosis  and  Treatment. 

All  kinds  of  Abscess,  Tropical,  Pyaemic,  Metastatic, 
etc. 

Different  kinds  of  Cancen  of  the  Liver  and  its  Appen- 
dages. 

ilydatid  and  Cystic  Diseases  of  the  Liver;  Syphilitic 
and   Fibroid  Diseases  of  the  Liver. 

Embolisms,  Fatty,  Amyloid  and  other  Degenerations 
of  the  Liver. 

Traumatic  Diseases  of  the  Liver. 

Diseases  of  the  Gall  Bladder. 

A  concluding  chapter,  entitled  Hints  on  Differential 
Diagnosis. 

Index. 


This  work  is  now  ready,  and  will  be  sent  by  mail,  postpaid,  upon  receipt  of  price. 
(Cloth,  $5.00.     Leather,  $6.00.) 


PRESS  NOTICES  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 

OF 

Dr.  George  Harley's  New  Book  on 

Diseases  of  the   Liver. 


"  The  Medical  Profession,  botli  n  Englam  and  Amer- 
ica, has  for  some  time  been  on  tl.i  gui  vive  :_r  this  new 
work  on  the  Liver,  both  because  hepatic  literature  is  mea- 
gre in  the  extreme,  and  because  it  was  well  known  that 
J'rof.  Harley  was  specially  qualified  to  write  an  authorita- 
tive work  on  the  subject.  .  .  .  The  author  has  unques- 
tionably written  the  most  valu.ible  work  on  hepatic  dis- 
eases that  lias  yet  appeared.  We  must  confess  that  we 
have  tried,  and  tried  hard,  to  find  some  error  in  the  work, 
to  preclude  the  charge  of  partiality  being  made." — Vir- 
giniii  Medical  Monthly. 

"  It  is  one  of  the  freshest,  most  readable,  and  most 
instructive  medical  books  that  have  been  laid  upon  our 
table  during  the  present  decade.  ...  In  conclusion,  we 
commend  again  most  heartily  Dr.  Harley's  extremely 
valuable  book." — Philadelphia  Medical  Times. 

"The  work  is  far  in  advance,  in  original  and  practical 
information,  of  any  treatise  on  the  subject  with  which  we 
are  acquainted,  and  is  worth  many  times  its  cost  to  any 
physician  treating  hepatic  troubles." — Chicago  Medical 
Times. 

"The  whole  subject-matter  is  treated  in  a  masterly 
manner,  and  the  work  is  destined  to  find  a  place  among 
the  classics." — Medical  Herald,  Louisville ,  Ky. 

"  It  is  the  outcome  of  a  mind  that  went  to  its  task 
amply  equipped  therefor.  It  is  the  product  of  long  think- 
ing and  ripe  judgment.  .  .  .  We  must  content  ourselves 
with  this  bare  statement  hoping  that  those  who  read  the 
book  wilj  derive  as  much  benefit  as  ourselves." — Neuj 
Orleajis  Medical  and  Surreal  Jozirtial. 

"  The  work  before  us  is  one  of  the  most  thoroughly 
scientific  ever  offered  to  the  medical  profession  upon  the 
diagnosis  and  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  liver.  This 
book  will  prove  especially  valuable  to  the  Southern  prac- 
titioner, who,  on  account  of  climatic  influences,  is  daily 
forced  to  combat  these  ailments.  In  this  section  of 
country  hepatic  disorders  are  not  only  common  as  inde- 
pendent conditions — diseases  per  se — but  they  form  im- 
portant factors  in  the  production  of,  and  are  ordinary 
concomitants  of,  most  of  our  malarial  diseases." — The 
Missit-'ippi  Valley  Medical  Monthly,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

"The  work  of  Dr.  Harley  is  the  most  complete  work 
upon  diseases  of  the  liver  now  before  the  profession.  It 
embodies  not  only  the  results  of  his  own  large  experience 
and  observations,  but  also  exhibits  the  researches  of  oth- 
ers in  the  same  class  of  diseases.  As  a  scientific  treatise 
of  hepatic  affections  and  their  treatment,  it  will  certainly 
hold  a  first  position  among  the  standard  works." — Cin- 
cinnati Medical  News. 

"  We  regard  it  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  recent 
additions  to  medical  literature." — Southern  Practitioner, 
Nashville,  Tenn. 


"  His  especial  point,  as  mdicatcd  in  the  titiC,  is  to 
bring  prominently  forward  the  relations  of  physiology  to 
the  forms  of  disease.  Too  exclusive  attention,  he  thinks, 
has  been  paid  to  pathology.  It  has  been  rtgr.rded  as  a 
science  apart.  The  great  truth  has  been  overlooked  that 
the  same  fundamental  laws  regulate  the  phenomena  both 
of  health  and  disease. 

"  With  this  as  his  guiding  principle,  he  approaches  the 
complicated  problem  of  '  liver  complaints'  and  'biliou^ 
ness'  with  a  much  stronger  hand  than  his  predecessors  in 
that  field.  Afflicted  as  many  districts  of  our  country  are, 
with  many  and  puzzling  forms  of  these  maladies,  we  be- 
lieve Dr.  Harley's  volnme  will  be  a  welcome  addition  to 
many  a  library." — Philadelphia  Meidcal  and  Surgical 
Reporter. 

"  We  have  read  the  volume  before  us  with  peculiar  in- 
terest, and  it  will  be  read  especially  by  Southern  doctors, 
who,  although  they  do  not  nave  a  monopoly  of  diseases 
of  the  liver,  by  reason  of  semi-tropical  malarial  climate 
encounter  a  large  proportion  of  such  diseases.  .  .  .  We 
most  heartily  commend  this  book  to  our  readers  as  a  val- 
uable addition  to  the  working  volumes  of  their  libraries  : 
for  without  any  exception  it  is  the  most  entertaining  and 
instructive  volume  we  had  the  pleasure  of  reading  for 
many  years." — North  Carolina  Medical  Journal. 

"  The  author  has  succeeded  admirably  in  the  work  he 
has  undertaken,  and  has  placed  before  the  profession  a 
work  that  will  be  of  inestimable  value  to  the  practi- 
tioner."— Nashville  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

"His  chapter  on  'Hints  to  Aid  in  the  Diagnosis  of 
Liver  Disease,'  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  book,  and  will 
amply  repay  any  one  for  its  perusal." — Indiana  Medical 
Journal. 

"  With  unusual  gratification  we  have  received  this 
most  excellent  work,  and  present  it  to  the  niedical  profes- 
sion with  an  unqualified  endorsement.  We  know  of  no 
work  of  the  kind,  as  this,  based  upon  the  unvarj'ing  rela- 
tion between  physiology  and  pathology,  the  only  avenue 
of  approach  to  the  cause  of  disease  and  proper  treat- 
ment."— Missouri  Valley  Medical  Journal. 

"  Those  features  which  are  the  most  noteworthy  from 
their  novelty,  or  as  showing  individuality  in  treatment, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  '  The  General  Treat- 
ment of  Hepatic  Disease,'  and  in  that  on  the  '  Chemistry 
of  the  Excretions.'  In  the  former  the  author  takes  up 
the  most  prominent  articles  in  the  materia  medica  having 
a  reputation  in  this  class  of  diseases,  and  considers  their 
chemistry,  their  mode  of  action,  and  the  conditions  which 
seem  to  indicate  their  employment,  after  adding  brief 
cases  in  illustration." — Nevj  York  Herald. 

"  We  commend  the  book  to  the  profession  as  eminently 
worthy  of  study,  and  one  that  should  be  in  the  library  of 
every  physirinn." — Southern  Medical  Record. 


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*^SENT,  POSTPAID,  ON  RECEIPT  OF  PRICE. 

BEALE  ON  SLIGHT  AILMENTS. 

SLIGHT  AILMENTS:  Their  Nature,  Causes,  and  Treatment.  By  Lionel  S.  Bkale,  M.D., 
F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Practice  in  King's  Medical  College.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  En- 
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Outline  of  Contents. —  Introductory.     The   Tongue   in    Health    and    Slight  Ailments. 

Appetite.     Nausea.    Thirst.     Hunger.     Indigestion,  its  Nature  and  Treatment.     Constipation, 

its   Treatment.     Diarrhoea.     Vertigo.     Giddiness.    Biliousness.     Sick  Headache.     Neuralgia. 

Rheumatism.     The  Feverish  and  Inflammatory  State.     Of  the  Actual  Changes  in  Fever  and 

Inflammation.     Common  Forms  of  Slight  Inflammation,  etc.,  etc. 

"  We  venture  to  .^ay,  that  among  the  numerous  medical  publications  there  has  been  none  which  will  prove  more 

useful  to  the  young  general  practitioner,  for  whom  it  is  really  intended,  than  this  volume,  while  the  time  of  the  older 

physician  might  be  much  more  unprofitably  spent." — American  yournal  0/ Medical  Science . 

TILT  ON  CHANGE  OF  LIFE  IN  WOMEN. 

THE  CHANGE  OF  LIFE  IN  WOMEN,  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE.  A  Clinical 
Treatise  on  the  Diseases  Incidental  to  Women  at  the  Decline  of  Life.  By  Edward  John 
Tilt,  M.D.,  Past  President  of  the  Obstetrical  Society.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Octavo.     A^ow  ready.  Price,  in  Strong  Paper  Covers,  75  Cents;  Cloth,  $1.25 

"  Few  books  are  issued  which  are  more  indispensable  to  the  general  practitioner." — Phila.  .Medical  Times. 
"This  is  unquestionably  the  best  work  e.xtant  on  this  interesting  subject.     .     .     .     It  is  a  repertory  of  informa- 
tion."— American  Practitioner. 

AGNEW  ON  THE  FEMALE  PERINEUM. 

LACERATIONS  OF  THE  FEMALE  PERINEUM  AND  VESICO-VAGINAL 
FISTULA.  Their  History  and  Treatment.  With  75  Illustrations.  By  D.  Hayes  Agnew, 
M.D.,  Professor  of  Surgery,  University  of  Pennsylvania.     Octavo.     Readv. 

Price,  in  Strong  Paper  Covers,  75  Cents;  Cloth,  $1.25 
So  many  applications  having  been  made  for  these  papers,  as  originally  issued,  it  has  been 
thought  best  to  bring  them  before  the  profession  in  the  present  form. 
"  The  literature  of  the  subject,  its  history,  causes,  complications,  and  various  modes  of  treatment,  -.-e  given.     The 
various  methods  of  radical  cure  are  classified." — Indiana  your nal  0/ Medicine. 

"  These  two  monographs  will  merit  this  more  durable  and  convenient  form." — Atn.  yournal  0/  Cisletr,,,. 

DAY  ON  HEADACHES. 

THE  NATURE,  CAUSES  AND  TREATMENT  OF  HEADACHES.  I'.v  William 
Henry  Day,  .m.d.,  author  of  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  Children."  Fourth  Edition, 
with  Illustrations.     Octavo,     yitst  Ready. 

Price.'in  Strong  Paper  Covers,  75  Cents  ;  Cloth,  $1.25. 

Summary  of  Contents. — Headache  from  Cerebral  Ana;inia,  Cerebral  Hyperaimia;  Sympathetic,  Congestive, 
Dyspeptic  or  Bilious  Headaches;  Headache  from  Plethora,  from  Exhaustion,  trom  C'hangc  in  Cerebral  Tissue,  from 
Affections  of  the  Periosteum  ;  Neri'ous  and  Ncrv-o-Hypcrsemic  Headache  ;  Toxa:mic.  Rheumatic,  Arthritic  or  Gouty 
lle.-idache;  Neuralgic  headache,  and  Headaches  of  Childhood,  Early  and  Advanced  Life. 

ALLINGHAM  on  DISEASES  of  the  RECTUM. 

FISTULA,  HEMORRHOIDS,  PAINFUL  ULCER,  STRICTURE,  PROLAPSUS, 
..nd  all  other  Diseases  of  the  Rectum.  Their  Diagnosis  and  Treatment.  By  William 
AllinghAM,  m.d.  Fourth  Enlarged  and  Improved  Edition,  with  Illustrations.  Octavo. 
Just  ready.  Price,  in  Strong  Paper  Covers,  75  Cents;  Cloth,  $1.25 

%*  The  publishers  have  also  a  few  copies  of  a  much  finer  edition  of  Dr.  AUingham's  book. 

Printed  in  London,  on  thick  paper,  from  large  type,  the  illustrations  being  printed  on  separate 

sheets.     Price,  Extra  Cloth,  $3.00. 

"  No  book  on  this  special  subject  can  at  all  approach  AUingham's  in  precision,  clearness  and  practical  good  sense." 

— London  Medical  Timesfand  Gazette. 
"  It  is,  as  indeed  the  verdict  of  the  profession  has  already  pronounced  it,  one  of  the  very  best  works  on  Diseases  of 

the  Rectum." — American  yournal  0/ Medical  Science. 

J(^"No  subscribing  nuisance  is  connected  with  this  series,  each  volume  is  sold  separately,  or 

the  five  will  be  sent,  postpaid,  upon  recei]it  of  S500,  for  Cloth  Binding,  or  for  S3. 00  in  Paper  Covers. 

P,  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO..  1012  WALNUT  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA 


DEC  1  3  J91S 


DUE  DATE 

NOV  -■- 

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COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 

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